INTRODUCTION:

In Indian film industry Bollywood plays a significant role in shaping public perceptions of communities, particularly those who are historically marginalized.⁴ However, on examining on-screen representation of women in India, research has shown that women are not only under-represented, there is also a prevalence of gender stereotyping. Furthermore, the study also found a lack of ethnic diversity in the media.² At this juncture it becomes important to analyse how Bollywood represents the marginalized communities and its women.

Indian Muslims are the largest religious minority and as per a study conducted by government of India, Muslims in India form an economically and educationally backward community.⁸ Hence the Muslim women become triply marginalized as they are not only the victim of gender biases and their minority status but also of class differences. Although religion does not directly influence the status of Muslim women, there are community specific disadvantages which arise out of poverty. It is the social and economic class, urban or rural residence, and regional factors which are the primary influence on their status.³ It is further argued that Muslim women do not form a homogeneous category. Their gender intersects with aspects of their identity other than religion like age, marital status, education, class, location of residence, political opinion, etc giving rise to myriads of experiences.⁵ Despite their varied experiences largely Muslim women are portrayed as silent victims of oppression in the hands of hypermasculine aggressive Muslim men.⁹ Although Bollywood has produced certain iconic films with strong Muslim female characters, it has also been observed that portrayals of Muslim women have often been stereotyped as being submissive and oppressed, overly sensualized, or as symbols of nationalistic sacrifice.⁴ Keeping these points in consideration this paper shall enquire do Muslim women have adequate representation in Indian cinema? The study shall further explore how Muslim women have been represented in Bollywood across different time periods? It shall analyse how these portrayals have evolved, and whether they contribute to or challenge existing stereotypes?

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

For this research, content analysis method has been used. A purposive sampling method has been used to select Bollywood films released 1960s onwards, featuring Muslim female characters in significant roles. The sample includes a mix of commercially successful films and critically acclaimed works. The criteria for selection of samples have been films with Muslim female protagonists, movies representing each decade since 1960 and diversity in genre like historical dramas, romance and action. A brief summary of the movies selected for this study is as follows:

Mughal-e-Azam (1960):

Directed by K. Asif, Mughal-e-Azam is a grand historical drama about Prince Salim’s love for the court dancer Anarkali. Being opposed by his father, Emperor Akbar, Salim eventually rebels against him. Captured and sentenced to death, Salim is spared when Anarkali sacrifices herself, agreeing to be entombed alive. In the film’s ending, Akbar secretly frees her on the condition that she leaves the empire forever. The tragedy concludes with Salim alive but separated from Anarkali.

Umrao Jaan (1981):

Directed by Muzaffar Ali, Umrao Jaan tells the tragic story of Ameeran, a young girl kidnapped and sold to a kotha in Lucknow, where she becomes the celebrated courtesan-poetess Umrao Jaan. Though admired for her beauty and talent, she longs for love and freedom. Her romance with Nawab Sultan collapses under social pressure, and betrayal by loved ones deepening her despair. Life situation forces her to return to her birthplace, only to find she no longer belongs there.

Pakeezah (1972):

Directed by Kamal Amrohi, Pakeezah is the story of Sahibjaan, a courtesan born into a life of stigma. Trained to dance and entertain, she dreams of respectability and love. She meets Salim, a forest officer who sees her purity beyond her profession, but their love faces resistance from his family and the social prejudices surrounding her. Although heartbroken, she gains dignity through recognition of her art.

Nikaah (1982):

Directed by B. R. Chopra, the film questions Islamic divorce laws through the story of Niloufer, trapped in an unhappy marriage with Wasim. After divorce, she finds solace with Haider, who truly respects her. However, societal restrictions and emotional turmoil highlight the plight of women caught between personal happiness and rigid traditions.

Bazaar (1982):

Sagar Sarhadi’s Bazaar explores the grim reality of bride-buying in Hyderabad. Najma, pressured by love and financial constraints, becomes complicit in the sale of a young girl, Shabnam, to an aging wealthy man. The film critiques social injustice and exploitation under the guise of marriage.

Bombay (1995):

Directed by Mani Ratnam, Bombay follows Shekhar, a Hindu, and Shaila, a Muslim, who marry against family opposition. They build a life together in Bombay, raising twins, but their love is tested during the 1992–93 communal riots. Amid violence, loss, and separation, the couple struggles to reunite their family. The film pleads for religious harmony.

Zakhm (1998):

Mahesh Bhatt’s Zakhm is a deeply personal tale about communal conflict and identity. Ajay grapples with his mother’s hidden Muslim faith, revealed as she lies dying after a religious riot attack. Through flashbacks, he recalls her struggles against prejudice. The film confronts religious intolerance while emphasizing compassion, love, and reconciliation.

Gadar: Ek Prem Katha (2001):

Set during Partition, it tells of Tara Singh, a Sikh, who falls in love with Sakina, a Muslim woman. Despite communal violence, he marries her and builds a family in India. Years later, Sakina is forced back to Pakistan, and Tara bravely crosses the border to reunite with her, symbolizing love defying politics and hatred.

Veer-Zaara (2004):

Yash Chopra’s cross-border romance is a depiction of eternal love between Veer, an Indian Hindu Air Force officer, and Zaara, a Pakistani Muslim woman. Alleged with false charges, Veer spends decades in prison. With help from lawyer Saamiya, his innocence comes to light and he finally unites with Zaara.

Fiza (2000):

In Khalid Mohammed’s Fiza, the protagonist searches for her missing brother Amaan, who disappeared during riots. Years later, she discovers he has joined a militant group. Despite her pleas, he cannot escape his violent path, leading to tragedy. The film highlights the toll of terrorism on families and a woman’s resilience amid despair.

Mission Kashmir (2000):

Directed by Vidhu Vinod Chopra, it is the story of Altaaf a boy, orphaned during a counter-terrorism raid, and is adopted by police chief Inayat. When Altaaf learns Inayat killed his parents, he turns to militancy, manipulated by extremists. Torn between revenge and love, he chooses his path. The film explores Kashmir’s conflict, revenge, and redemption.

Raanjhanaa (2013):

Kundan, a small-town Hindu boy, is deeply in love with Zoya a Muslim, who does not reciprocate. His obsession drives him into her political world, but betrayal, misunderstandings, and tragedy follow. The film explores unrequited love, sacrifice, and the destructive side of devotion.

Lipstick Under My Burkha (2016):

This bold drama showcases four women in Bhopal, each seeking freedom—through love, desire, or ambition—while constrained by patriarchy and tradition. Their journeys reveal resilience, rebellion, and the cost of asserting individuality.

Naam Shabana (2017):

The film traces Shabana’s transformation from a troubled young Muslim woman to a skilled spy in India’s intelligence agency. Motivated by personal loss, she embraces danger to fight terrorism.

Gully Boy (2019):

Inspired by Mumbai’s Street rappers, it is the story of Murad, a slum-dweller with a passion for rap. Despite poverty, family pressure, and social inequality, he rises to fame. It’s a story of dreams, voice, and self-belief. Safeena his girlfriend is shown to play a significant role in his success as his partner in struggle and a driving force.

Raazi (2018):

Based on real events, Sehmat, an Indian Muslim woman, marries a Pakistani officer as part of an espionage mission before the 1971 war. Torn between duty and emotions, she risks everything for her country, blending patriotism with personal sacrifice.

RESULT:

Movies with significant female Muslim character have been selected from every decade since 1960s till today. A corelation has been draw between the movies in each decade and its theme. The thematic division of Bollywood movies with female Muslim characters across time is as follows:

1960s to 1970s: The beautiful courtesans

In iconic Hindi movies of this period namely Mughal e Azam (1960) and Pakeezah (1972) Muslim women are shown as courtesans.

1980s: The silent women

Movies were still made showcasing Muslim women as courtesans, a good example of which is Umraojaan (1981), a hit film of its time. Besides, Muslim women were also depicted as helpless victims of patriarchal oppression in movies like Nikaah and Bazaar both released in the year 1982.

1990s: Interreligious marriages

In this period Bollywood movies dealt with the theme of interreligious marriage between Muslim woman and a Hindu man. The movies highlighted the stigma attached with such marriages and the ordeal the couple had to go through. Two most appropriate movies to fit this theme are Bombay (1995) and Zakhm (1998).

2000s: Intersection of religion and nationality

In this decade also the movie plot revolved around the theme of interreligious love story. However here an intersection was drawn between religion and nationality. Either Muslim girl protagonists were shown as Pakistanis as in the case of movies like Gadar Ek Prem Katha (2001) and Veer Zara (2004) or as patriotic Indians like in the movie Fiza and Mission Kashmir (2000).

2010s: Breaking stereotype

The 2010s witnessed the emergence of strong, educated and independent Muslim female characters. Movies like Raanjhana (2013), Lipstick under my Burkha (2016), Naam Shabana (2017) Raazi (2018) and Gully Boy (2019) were made breaking the long prevailing stereotypes regarding the Muslim women in India.

DISCUSSION:

Three research questions were posed at the beginning of this paper: Do Muslim women have adequate representation in Indian cinema? How have Muslim women been represented in Bollywood across different time periods? How these portrayals have evolved overtime, and whether they contribute to or challenge existing stereotypes? These questions shall be dealt with based on the result of this study in the following sub-themes:

Visibility of Muslim women in Bollywood movies:

Bollywood makes a wide array of films every year and yet films with Muslim protagonists seem to be very less. Even though there are quite a few Muslim actors in the industry, they get to play typical Hindu roles. The reasoning can be that the film industry is essentially run by Hindu men and they make sure the status quo remains stable. To ensure this they have to make films which serve the majority of the Nation. Given, Hinduism is the major religion in India and there is a growing sense of Islamophobia among many people, keeping characters Hindu is the easiest for film makers.

Stereotyping Muslim female Protagonists:

Muslim women have had varied representation in Indian cinema across time. Different phases in Hindi cinema have showcased different shades of Muslim women characters on screen from preservers of tradition and veiled beauty to bold and strong characters.^{7, 10} On analysing the sample movies selected for this study it was found that the portrayal of Muslim women in Bollywood witnesses a decadal transition. The phase 1960s-1980s portrayed Muslim women as hypersexualized dancers stereotyped as courtesans and tawaifs. These women are covered up from the head to toe and yet they are sexualised and are shown as pleasing the men who come to see them. On one hand they are pleasuring men but on the other hand, their modesty is portrayed as pure and chaste, so that this female character is still deemed well enough for marriage. The men were shown as having sexual feelings while the women were recipients of the man’s sexual desire. Even when women are shown initiating a relationship, it is always based on platonic love and never on sexual desires.^10,
4 They were also shown to be emotionally dependent on the hero with a desire to be possessed and controlled by the man.¹ It becomes crucial to add that Muslim women characters were created only in movies depicting Muslim culture or historical dramas set in the backdrop of Muslim rule. The Muslim woman’s presence was stereotyped as that of a beautiful and attractive courtesan. For instance, the character of Anarkali a courtesan in the evergreen romantic historical drama Mughal e Azam.¹⁴Similarly, the character of Amiran a courtesan in Umraojaan which was set in the era of British India.¹³ Pakeezah was another iconic Bollywood movie depicting Muslim culture where too the Muslim woman was shown as a courtesan.²⁰ Even in movies showcasing post partition independent India, female Muslim character if any would be that of a courtesan. The difference here would be that the Muslim woman would never be the Hindu man’s first choice. The hero would usually fall in love with a middle class, Hindu female. Only when the Hindu woman would reject his advances, he would go to this Muslim courtesan who would heal him and take care of him.

1980s was a transitional period which not just produced movies like Umaraojaan but also Nikah and Bazaar. Here emerged a new trend of depicting Muslim women as victims of patriarchal oppression which found its basis in the religion. For example, the movie Nikaah focussed on the themes of ‘triple talaq’ and ‘halala’ which is validated by Shariah Law.¹⁶Depiction of exploitation in the form of older Muslim men buying young girls and marrying them as shown in the movie Bazaar.²⁵ The portrayal of Muslim women as pitiable objects with no agency and the misrepresentation of the Shariah law brings forward the limitations of Bollywood and the stereotypes reinforced by it.

Films in 1990s started showing Muslim women exerting their agency when it came to love and marriage. However, these were interreligious marriages where Muslim girls married Hindu boys and rarely the other way round. For example, the stories of Bombay and Zakhm were written in the backdrop of communal issues like Hindu-Muslim riots and highlighted the stigma attached with interreligious marriages and the struggles of such married couples.^{15, 24} It needs to be pointed that in these movie plots the Muslim woman character got an opportunity to be visible only through marriage with a Hindu man.

2000s saw the beginning of Muslim women’s depiction as loyal Indians making sacrifices for the nation. In the movie Fiza, the female Muslim protagonist fights against militancy and extremism.²¹ Mission Kashmir portrays Muslim women as symbols of peace who counter radicalism.^{4, 18}

As there is a gradual transition in the portrayal of the Muslim female character there is also a gradual shift in the backdrop in which these characters have been created: a) beautiful Muslim courtesans in Muslim dominated India as lovers of kings and nawabs b) Muslim women oppressed by patriarchal Shariah laws in independent India c) Muslim women using their agency to marry Hindu men in a communally divided independent India d) Pakistani Muslim women falling in love with Indian Hindu men. This transition is accompanied by the changing portrayal of the image of Muslim men. 1960s-1980s depicted Muslim men as kings and nawabs vulnerable enough to be captivated in love of beautiful courtesans. 1980s-1990s the portrayal was that of oppressive and patriarchal Muslim men using Shariah law at their advantage. In 1990s and 2000s the Muslim male character becomes invisible in the Bollywood movies. Muslim female protagonists are paired with ideal Hindu male protagonists. Eventually, Indian Muslim female protagonists are replaced by Pakistani Muslim female protagonists who are paired with good Indian Hindu male character against oppressive and violent Muslim male. Movies like Veer Zara and Gadar: Ek Prem Katha are appropriate examples to justify this observation.^17,26 While Muslim men were portrayed as violent humans, the Muslim women were shown as silent women who get oppressed at the hand of their men and needed the Hindu men to save them. These Muslim women were thus shown as doing everything an average Hindu woman could do, except speak up for her community and herself. The explanation for such portrayals could be drawn from the socio-political scenario of this time. The 1999 India-Pakistan war known as Kargil war and 2002 Godhra communal riots were probably the context in which the plots of these movies were written.²

Breaking Stereotypes:

The year 2000 witnesses the breaking of stereotypes in the Bollywood with movies like Fiza and Mission Kashmir. The movies revolved around the idea of patriotic and nationalistic Indian Muslim women. In some post 2010 movies, Muslim women characters were shown as Indian spies, risking their lives to be accepted as good and loyal citizens of India. In other words, they were projected as being overtly patriotic and nationalistic. It seemed as if the Muslim women were trying to sell the fact that they are Indians and not Pakistanis. It also portrays how Muslims have to prove their love for their nation. The question arises, why this over emphasis on their nationalist identity? It could be that if the trope of patriotism is taken away from them, they will become bleak characters. This again finds its basis in the socio-political context of the time where Muslims in India were easily perceived to be terrorists or Pakistani sympathisers. Thus, depicting them as patriotic would rule out these perceptions making them ‘good, acceptable women’.

However, post 2010 more movies were made breaking the stereotypes associated with Muslim women. Muslim women are shown as educated, modern, smart and bold. In the movie Raanjhanaa, the Muslim female protagonist was depicted studying in a reputed central university, actively involved in politics and had a Hindu lover.²³ Although the movie had a chance to delve into the everyday life of the female Muslim protagonist, it did not. It reduced the character to doing something only because her now dead-boyfriend wanted her to do. Though the Muslim female character was educated and smart, yet she was emotionally driven.

Another example is the film Raazi, based on the novel Calling Sehmat (2008) by Harinder Singh Sikka.¹⁹ While not shown in the film, the novel describes how Sehmat wanted to stay in India, pursue her higher education at Delhi University and be with her love, Abhimanyu, but she had to leave her life behind to complete her father’s patriotic wishes. Here, the Muslim woman’s agency is snatched away from her and this entire ordeal is made about nationalism and patriotism. While showing the Muslim women as patriotic, the women are sometimes portrayed as spies who are sent to Pakistan as field agents and spies.¹ The assumption is that the Muslim women fit perfectly fine in Pakistan, even though ‘Muslimness’ varies from region to region and thus the character’s Indian Muslimness wouldn’t easily match the Pakistani Muslimness. Unfortunately, these details are overlooked and the female is expected to do her role as a spy and prove her love for her nation.

Naam Shabana is another movie with a Muslim female protagonist working as spy in Indian intelligence agency.²² It is an attempt to break the stereotypes by showcasing a bold and strong Muslim girl but still remains problematic. Shabana is shown to have an aggressive father who is abusive towards her mother and is eventually killed by Shabana. The movie sketches its plot around stereotypical ideas of aggressive and violent Muslim men and disturbed and chaotic Muslim families. Lipstick Under My Burkha is another movie which attempts to explore desires and agency of Muslim women in modern India.²⁷ The film revolves around four individual females dealing with their sexuality. Two of these women are Muslim. Rehana, the youngest of them all is a college goer and wants to be a singer. She wants liberation from her orthodox conservative family. On the other hand, Shirin Aslam is the bread winner of her family and is bold and courageous.⁶ Shireen and Rehana live in stereotypical atmosphere but do not follow the set rules. These characters do not fit in any of the aforementioned stereotypes, rather these characters transcend those boundaries. Similarly in the movie Gully Boy, the character Safeena breaks the stereotypical representation of women on screen.¹² Safeena is a middle-class girl aspiring to become a surgeon. She is a bold and fierce Muslim lady in hijab (headscarf) who lives life on her own terms. She is supportive towards her boyfriend Murad and motivates him to achieve his dream of becoming a rapper. These female characters are shown belonging to stereotypical families which becomes a hurdle in choosing their career and happiness. Later on, all the three characters break the stereotypical portrayal of Muslim women on silver screen. The films try to share the message that there are always two options for everyone; one is to be docile and accept what may come or be courageous enough to stand for oneself.² These films showcase Muslim women opting for second option and boldly standing up for their rights.

As mentioned earlier the characters portrayed in these movies are independent, bold and aware about their rights. They live their lives on their own terms. They don’t need a man’s support for a better life. All the characters are able to make decisions by themself. However, stereotypes continue to persist in the form of conservative and socioeconomically backward Muslim families. But what is new is that Muslim women have been shown being brave enough to fight for their happiness. While breaking some stereotypes other stereotypes are reinforced and some new emerge. This could be because patriarchy is so complex and deeply rooted in our society that its effects still appear on the silver screen.

CONCLUSION:

Muslim women have had limited and stereotypical representation in Indian cinema with certain common tropes in their characterisations. With time, these tropes change and a new set of tropes become common. This is because the films also derive their characters from the society.² However, the movie makers fail to be inclusive of the diversity within the Muslim community in India. Muslim men are portrayed in negative light as vulgar, vile and aggressive. They are often shown as irrationally angry, victims or perpetrators of terrorism, superstitious, orthodox, conservative and misogynistic.¹¹ Muslim Women on the other hand are shown as victims of the oppression they face from Muslim men. There is an entire narrative of Muslim Women needing saving from their men. This creates a false image of the community as a whole, where there are no good men and only weak women. Further strengthening the notion that Muslim women are better than Muslim men as long as they are quiet, obedient and can prove their loyalty to the ‘Hindu’ Nation. In other words, Muslim Women representation in Indian Popular Media can be divided into three phases: 1) The beautiful Tawaif (Courtesan) (1970s- early 1990s), 2) The Silent Woman (late 1990s-2010) and 3) The Patriotic Woman (2010- till present). However, some films have made attempts to break this barrier and give a more holistic and diverse portrayal of Muslims. Since representation in itself is very status-quo maintaining, it is seen that the stereotypes shown on the screen being the reality of some while there are others who implement what is shown on screen in their lives. This seems like an endless cycle, but attempts are being made to start a new and better discourse.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

The authors have no conflicts of interest regarding this investigation.

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Received on 26.08.2025 Revised on 22.09.2025

Accepted on 17.10.2025 Published on 07.11.2025

Available online from November 20, 2025

Res. J. of Humanities and Social Sciences. 2025;16(4):317-322.

DOI: 10.52711/2321-5828.2025.00052

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Creative Commons License.