INTRODUCTION:

Women’s paid and unpaid work, particularly care work, is an area at the heart of UNICEF’s mission and mission. This work has emerged from the voluntary use of existing strategies and initiatives in the field of gender equality around the world particularly in the context of women’s self-empowerment and the wider impact on the world of work and the growth and development of the economy. The article examines the connections and trade-offs between paid and unpaid work, including unpaid work, and recommends further research and analysis. It will focus particularly on the division of labour between women and men in paid and unpaid care work and its impact on outcomes, effective work, personal capacity and the power to act and mobilise. The link to human and family suffering; economic and social policies and institutions influence women’s choices by reducing or increasing the burden of unpaid work. Unpaid care determines the capacity, duration and type of paid work that can be undertaken. Because it does not provide compensation, it reduces the ‘voice’ in decisions and affects the person’s ability to save and accumulate assets. Unpaid care, seen as a woman’s ‘natural’ work performed in the ‘private’ sphere of the home – overshadows her wealth and services because she has no value, redistributing the wages of care workers to low-skilled, low-cost work with low wages, few voting rights and few social protections. Most importantly, unpaid care work involves the transfer of benefits to other sectors without recognition, making women’s lives difficult. This implicit contribution suggests a relationship between women and men. Furthermore, they also exploitatively combine the ‘private’ world of home and family with the ‘public’ sphere of business and the state. It is important to uncover these interactions and expose the information asymmetry to stimulate public debate and action on behalf of policymakers in anticipation of possible change.

Unpaid work continues to be central to discussions about women’s economic empowerment and the future of decent work. Unpaid work and care include work related to the home or family, and care for people in the family, community or the world. Unpaid care continues to be one of the most significant barriers to women entering and exiting the labour market and determining the quality of their work. The important link between paid and unpaid work and the need for access to unpaid work is crucial in identifying the over-representation of mothers in low-paid work and those who lack access to better employment and social security. As indicated by the Employment and Unemployment Survey and the Labour Force Survey, the female labour force participation rate in India fell from 38.5% in 1999-00 to 28.7% in 2019, a decline of 9.8 percentage points. Although work is not satisfactory for women in India, time studies show that women spend a lot of time on unpaid work and care work. The large gap between male and female labor force participation does not mean that women work less, nor does it mean that women participate less in the labor force. Instead, they spend most of their time on unpaid work. It is undeniable that women tend to combine paid work with unpaid or unpaid work due to the perception of women as housewives. Women continue to bear the burden of unpaid care;

In this context, the inclusion of unpaid work in national statistics was discussed at the World Mother Conference held in Beijing in 1995 and was a matter of great concern to policy makers. Many developing countries around the world have conducted small or large-scale studies to understand unpaid work. However, developing countries are increasingly aware of large-scale studies that identify unpaid work. Time surveys differ from traditional employee surveys in that they cover all activities, regardless of work or market. These studies provide a comprehensive overview of unpaid work and caregiving, showing how such work affects participation in paid work. Overall, these studies help address the problem of unpaid work and can make important contributions to macroeconomic policy making. While target 5.4 of the global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aims to recognize and increase the value of unpaid care through the promotion of family responsibility as well as public services, infrastructure and social protection to achieve gender equality. This study examines employment surveys and time-based surveys to understand women’s participation in paid and unpaid work. It seeks to understand women’s time use patterns across activities and thereby highlights the limitations women face in participating in paid work. This study attempts to address methodological issues surrounding time work to better understand women’s work. It focuses on the importance of making women’s unpaid work visible in order to encourage the development of good policies in this area. I believe that this research will be useful in helping planners, statisticians, policy makers, social scientists, researchers, government agencies and business organizations in their efforts to promote women’s economic participation and provide a safe work environment in India. This study contributes to the current debates on low female participation in the labor market, economic downturn and gender inequality in the labor market, thus showing the time limit for women. Overall, the research will help policy makers design interventions to promote gender equality and achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.

The critical link between paid and unpaid work is crucial to understanding the critical role of women in India. The perception that women are engaged in unpaid work often acts as an invisible barrier to women’s entry into paid work. Unpaid work remains one of the most important factors in women’s participation in the labor market. Women’s participation in the labour market is low and the gender gap is significant, reflecting the global unemployment rate. In 2018, women’s global labour force participation was 48.5%, 26.5 percentage points lower than men (ILo, 2019). Another important challenge women face is the perception of informal employment and the growth of informal employment in low- and middle-income countries. The decline in women’s labour force participation in conflict-affected countries like India is a major policy issue. There is much debate in academic and policy discussions about the reasons for the decline in women’s participation in India. Despite economic growth, decline and higher education of women and girls, it is undeniable that women’s participation in women’s labour force (FLFP) is still low in India. The Ministry of Labour and Unemployment has reported that women’s participation in the labour force has fallen from 41.7% in 1999-00 to 32.3% in 2019-20, indicating a decline of 9.4 percentage points. reported. Evidence suggests that gender inequality in education and employment undermines women’s ability to produce, thereby affecting the country’s development. This is especially true in developing countries like India, where the principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Constitution; women are still subject to many cultural and ethical constraints. The Constitution also allows the state to take measures to prevent discrimination against women, which has led to many laws, regulations and developments.

Strategies and programs have been initiated for the advancement of women in many areas (Raveendran, 2016). Women’s participation in the workforce is a driver of economic growth and hence their participation indicates that the country has the potential for rapid growth. However, the relationship between women’s participation in the labor market and overall development outcomes is complex (Verick, 2014). Women’s work is affected by many factors. At the micro level, career paths, children, family income and other factors affect employment. Impacts on women’s career choices. Women’s Work

Since the 1960s, many studies have been conducted to measure health disparities between men and women. At the same time, support and awareness in international forums reached a peak, with many governments following the United Nations’ support to eliminate all forms of discrimination against women. In order to document the progress (or lack thereof), a new concept was created that defined the need for a process of collecting gender data. As a result, there has been a huge increase in data collection, allowing both developed and developing countries to track the gap between girls and boys, women and men in their countries. Over the next decade, research studies have shown that improving gender differences in paid and unpaid work is an end in itself and leads to gender equality, sustainable development, social cohesion and overall improvements in human well-being. improved.

It aims to address the often-neglected unpaid work of women, such as housework, caregiving and other non-commercial work, and investigates how good these services are for business. Some possible objectives for this topic include:

OBJECTIVES:

1. Exploring the economic value of women who do not do paid work, including housework, supervision and volunteering, uses a variety of methods, including time-consuming research and sampling. Contributions other than labour income are often overlooked. As GDP.

2. Linking paid workers to social security systems: Exploring whether unpaid work is recognised in social security systems, pensions and benefits, and checking whether women who do not pay humanitarian aid are recognised in the social protection system.

3. Research on women's experiences: Conduct research or interviews to understand the lives of women who do not work unpaid and to determine the impact on their economic and psychological well-being.

4. Advocate for work-life balance and empowerment: Promote solutions that promote women’s equality in unpaid work and pay, such as affordable childcare, flexible work policies, and shared housing.

5. Examine what other countries have done, how they have integrated unpaid work into their businesses, and consider the validity of this model.

Policy attention and resources have therefore been directed to addressing inequalities in health, education, entrepreneurship, employment rights and access to credit and trade. These are important leaders, and the increasing participation of women in the workforce is supporting evidence of this. Despite progress, gaps persist. Women still make up the majority of low-paid and unprotected workers worldwide. Despite women's financial contribution, women's returns to education are lower, and the gender wage gap, market segmentation and employment segregation contribute to inequality. Finally, there are also gender differences in the division of labour between paid and unpaid work, with men spending more time in paid work, while most women are in unpaid work. It is this difference that has attracted attention. Time-use data research suggests that this is the case for women who participate in work, and for "weaker" women in the north and south. (a) Improving the capacity, duration and type of paid work that can be done, thus restricting access to available work and potential paid, shared work processes and social security; (b) Lack of reimbursement, thus reducing decision-making power and the ability to hold savings and assets; (c) The perception of women as "natural" work in the "private" sphere of the home, as in many societies, thus de-emphasizing and de-emphasizing work. commercial activities and services; (d) It is not sufficient to distribute childcare workers into jobs that are perceived to be unskilled, low-paid, and discouraging to relationships with few incentives and protections.

THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

The importance of research on women’s unpaid wages is increasingly recognized, but is often under-recognized in terms of national and international economies. Even without economic measures, unpaid work (including housework, care work and social services) constitutes a significant part of women’s lives every day, especially in countries like India. The aim of this study is to identify the invisible work and its contribution to work value, and to reveal the difference between recognition and payment. The methodology of this study aims to provide an analysis of women’s unpaid work using both qualitative and quantitative methods. We will use a variety of strategies to ensure that this difficult issue is addressed from multiple perspectives, including social, economic and policy. Quantitative Data Collection: Surveys and Questionnaires: Surveys will be conducted among women from different groups (age, income, rural/urban). This will help collect information on hours of unpaid work, types of work and their impact on their economic and social well-being. Data from time-use surveys conducted by government agencies will be analyzed to calculate the average number of hours’ women spend in unpaid work compared to men. Methodology: Interviews and focus groups: In-depth interviews and focus groups will be conducted with women from various sectors, especially from underprivileged groups. This will uncover personal and cultural experiences that affect unpaid work.

State - wise Workforce Participation of Women in India:

Despite economic and social growth, low birth rates and increasing levels of education among women and girls, FLFP in India remains low. Women’s WPR is lower in some parts of the country, highlighting the need to identify regional challenges to integrate multiple policies in this regard. It would be interesting to explore women’s WPR and their unpaid roles in some countries to provide a more detailed analysis of specific issues arising from differences in eating practices. This section focuses on employment opportunities for women across states in India. In terms of total WPR for women in India, the five states reporting the lowest WPR (Table-1) are Bihar (9.5%), Assam (14.9%), Haryana (16.8%), Uttar Pradesh (17.7%) and Arunachal Pradesh (21.3%) (Appendix, Table 1). In Figure 2.2, in rural India, women from Dadra and Nagar Haveli/UT (85.6%), Himachal Pradesh (72.4%), Sikkim (67.8%), Chhattisgarh have the highest WPR, Bihar (9.8%), Haryana (14.4%), Assam (14.7%), Uttar Pradesh (19.3%) and Ladakh (58.2%) and Delhi (21.3%) have the lowest WPR. Women from Ladakh/UT (46.7%), Daman and Diu (42.4%), Sikkim (41.6%), Himachal Pradesh (38.8%) and Mizoram (34.3%) have the highest WPR, while women from Bihar (7.8%), Uttar Pradesh (12.4%), Delhi (15.4%), That outlines key figures (Table-2) and dates related to recognizing women’s unpaid work in India, particularly focusing on economic value and visibility.

Table 1: WPR (in percent) in usual status (ps+ss) (Age Group: 15-59 Years)

WPR (15-59 years)	Rural		Urban		Rural + Urban
WPR (15-59 years)	Male	Female	Male	Female	Male	Female
1999-2000	86.7	48.2	78.4	20.9	84.3	40.9
2004-2005	87.1	51.5	80.2	24.2	85.1	44.2
2009-2010	83.4	39.2	78.5	19.8	81.9	33.6
2011-2012	82	37.2	78.4	21	80.9	32.3
2017-2018	75.2	25.5	74.2	19.8	74.9	23.8
2018-2019	75.8	27.2	73.7	20.2	75.1	25
2019-2020	77.5	34.4	75.1	23.1	76.7	30.9

Source: Employment Unemployment Survey of India & Periodic Labour Force Survey of India

Table 2:

Year	Event/Publication	Key Figures/Findings
2016	UN Women Report	Women perform 3.26 times more unpaid care work than men.
2018	McKinsey Global Institute	If women participated in the labor force equally to men, India's GDP could increase by $770 billion by 2025.
2020	Oxfam India Report	Women's unpaid work valued at approximately 4.4% of India’s GDP.
2021	ILO Report	72% of women in India are engaged in unpaid work, compared to 29% of men.
2022	Economic Survey of India	Recognition of unpaid labor could enhance women's economic empowerment and policy frameworks.
2023	World Bank Study	Valued women's unpaid work at $600 billion annually, highlighting the need for inclusive policies.

Labor force, total - India | Data (worldbank.org)

The table-2 summarizes some key milestones and statistics that reflect the economic impact of women's unpaid work in India. If you need more detailed information or specific studies, let me know

Gender division of labour: paid and unpaid work:

The Concept and Scope of Unpaid Work Analytically, people allocate their time to activities that can be divided into paid work, unpaid work, and non-work. Apart from sleep time, the concept of "non-work" is generally understood to include free time for personal care and recreational activities. Of course, a clear but often overlooked distinction must be made between "inactivity" (voluntarily choosing free time) and "inactivity" (the result of forced inactivity due to insufficient work). The time to terminate the contract and receive payment. Major changes in work arrangements and the implementation of paid work in accordance with relevant legislation are having a positive impact on workers. Illegality and the lack of quality work are of great interest to governmental and non-governmental organizations, labor unions, the International Labor Organization (ILO), and academics worldwide. Labor market distribution, wage differentials, unemployment rates, and employee participation rates are also good candidates for research, and the country's data collection efforts on these issues are ongoing.

The overall distribution of time between paid and unpaid work depends on many factors, including age, gender, family structure, social class, place of residence, and having children. Young people, those who can afford other employment opportunities, those with few or no children, and household managers do not spend less time on unpaid work. The level of economic growth is equally important, as this affects not only the time spent on paid/unpaid work, but also the time spent on paid/unpaid work and the distribution of unpaid time between different jobs. In rich countries, a large proportion of the population has access to paid work. For example, spend more time on food production, or take wood from people who work part-time or not at all. Finally, the provision of social services that play a role in the allocation of private time among various unpaid tasks is determined by public infrastructure and the state system. For example, universal access to free health care, child and elder care, and door-to-door water distribution can reduce the time required to care for family member’s/ household members or to collect and carry water.

One contribution of gender-sensitive economic research is the macroeconomic study of work done by households. For our purposes, it is worth noting that families always want to provide jobs for the economy in exchange for the income they consume or save. As feminist economists have pointed out, this is a limitation because it ignores the fact that families are also connected to the rest of the economy through their productive resources8 because they are engaged in unpaid work that produces goods and provides services. For developing countries, excluding the demonized part of the economy is a bigger problem because the general market represents only a small part of the economy. We want to emphasize three points here: (a) GDP should be expanded to include the value of unpaid labor in the economy, including what is considered by the 1933 System of National Accounts and “non-commercial” finances; (b) the relationship between unpaid work and commercially oriented economic activities; (c) the connection between unpaid work and the state provision of public goods and services.

Table 3: Informal employment in non-agricultural employment, 1994-2000

Region/ country	Informal employment (IE) as a percentage of non-agricultural	Women	Men
North Africa	48	43	49
Sub-Saharan Africa	72	84	63
Sub-Saharan Africa	51	58	48
Asia	65	65	65

Source: J. Charmes in ILO (2002) data.

Unpaid work as a contribution to work in the economy:

Unpaid work is the daily household chores such as cooking, cleaning, shopping, washing, cleaning children, etc. costs; at a macro level this reduces wages and therefore increases profits, thus always supporting the accumulation process. The unpaid time spent on these activities can be seen as a "help" to the enterprise, a change, a "gift", so to speak, by the mechanism of an organization - householder/family - business. Unpaid work may be a personal matter for both the provider and the recipient, but this does not change the fact that without unpaid work, higher wages would be required to maintain the same lifestyle for workers and their families. Impact on cost structures and wages. At the same time, unpaid work from the "subsidy" has led to a decrease in the total participation of workers, a decrease in the income to be obtained and a decrease in the demand for quality products and services that could provide employment and create additional jobs. A recent study in selected Latin American countries found that more than half of women aged 20 to 24 said that family responsibilities were a major reason for not finding a job in the labour market (ECLAC, 2007). This group has more people who cannot find a job due to lack of education. This study also shows that having a person in the household who is specialized in housework (such as another relative or a domestic worker) does not have a significant effect on the time men spend on unpaid housework, but it does have a significant effect on women reporting unpaid time. Working from home frees up time for other activities, including work, which is beneficial. Research has confirmed that women's unpaid housework is a barrier to finding or maintaining paid work.

Simplified table highlighting the economic value of women's unpaid labor around the world, focusing on key figures and dates from various studies. This data demonstrates the significant impact of women's invisible labor on the economy.

This table summarizes some of the key findings regarding women's unpaid labor and its economic implications.

Unpaid work and poverty:

The security of basic needs, necessities and goods is achieved through a combination of paid and unpaid work in four major enterprises (business, government, family and non-governmental organizations (non-profit). In general, the participation of these organizations in the protection of desired products depends on the level of economic development of the country in which people live and the urgent public policy no.” and “services”, whether the enterprise is established or not and whether the household is engaged in paid work and can generate enough income to cover the income of people who are poor due to unemployment or the wages are restricted from entering the economy. However, the opportunity to invest, no matter how poor the family, it is necessary to devote some time to "household production"; for example, the time required to transform goods into final products, the rental of services that will replace unpaid individual contributions. home. This can be done by a cook, gardener or laundress. Use public or private transportation or use household appliances that shorten the production time at home, such as stoves, refrigerators, washing machines, etc.

One of the "solutions" to better combine work and family responsibilities is to provide more paid work in care, but much of this work is unsatisfactory. The poor prognosis for paid work is related to the lack of recognition of unpaid work, which is taken for granted and does not require skills, because most of this work is done by women (for example, in the United Kingdom this increased by 21% from 1998 to 2002, with only 2% of childcare workers being men). Nursing staff are the lowest paid and highest paid. It is not a skilled job, as it has always been a job for women, but it is not a job for women. It is difficult for them to plan and to obtain better conditions because, for example, in Australia, 25% of childcare workers are part-time or temporary (Goward, 2001). Childcare workers' wages are still lower than women's average wages, further widening the gender gap in earnings. In many countries, care has shifted from public to private, with the state taking on a management rather than a distributive role, meaning that women benefit less from the income generated by public employment and from setting the salaries of public employees.

Domestic workers, in particular, tend to work longer hours and receive lower wages. A recent survey of legislation in over 60 countries found that 19 countries have specific legislation or regulations for domestic workers, and an additional 19 focus on sections or segments. Domestic workers therefore have less protection than other workers and tend to work longer hours under the law (Ramirez-Machado, 2003). Ensuring that workers have the same employment rights under the law as other workers can be a first step in improving their conditions. Domestic workers are joining unions as a way of improving their communication and developing their work (such as in Bangladesh and South Africa). Dispersion. In countries receiving immigrants, immigrant women’s work represents a solution for the family to balance family and work needs. If many families use this solution, it will lead to a liberalization of social relations in the world of neoliberalism. This solution is open to families who can afford it, but it leaves low-income families without a solution to the problem of balancing paid and unpaid work. This will reduce the stress of finding solutions for care. In the South, the need to balance paid and unpaid work has shifted from immigrant women to the women who replace them. Research shows that in cases where the mother leaves behind a child, even if the father is responsible for it, women are often the heirs of special relatives who have close or distant female relatives. The law must address their needs swiftly.

FINDINGS:

the concept of “invisible work, visible disabilities” includes recognition of the often unnoticed or unpaid work that women do, particularly in domestic and social care work, and its economic and social importance. The following are the main findings from various studies and discussions on this topic:

1. Measure of unpaid work:

Time spent using the survey: Women do a higher proportion of unpaid work than men. This includes care, family and community work. In many countries, women spend 2-3 times more time on unpaid work than men. country and usage. Impact on Economic Development Reduced labor force participation: Women’s mostly unpaid work often limits their ability to participate in the labour market, affecting all products. Time limits due to unpaid work. Growth of 5% to 20% in some sectors. Impact on health and well-being Physical and physical health: Unpaid work, especially care and maintenance, can cause stress, anxiety and long-term health problems for women. The emotional and affective aspects of managing family needs are often overlooked. Health.

2. Policy recommendations:

Other unpaid work: Include unpaid work in the national system (e.g. GDP) to recognize the true economic value of unpaid work. Financial security in old age. Advocate for a more equitable distribution of unpaid work within the family through social movements and policy support.

3. Culture and change Challenging gender rights:

Promoting a cultural shift in society that recognizes and values unpaid work can empower and encourage men to take on more family responsibilities equally. Supportive interventions (such as microfinance, entrepreneurship support) can help reduce reliance on unpaid work and increase participation in the formal economy.

4. Intersectionality and Vulnerability Class and Race:

The burden of unpaid work is often greater for women from marginalized communities, including low-income families and minority groups, contributing to poverty and inequality.

5. The Rural-Urban Divide:

Rural women, especially in developing countries, face additional challenges because their unpaid work often involves agriculture and water harvesting that are essential for family survival, but there is no work available for employment. Recognizing and redistributing this labor is critical to promoting gender equality, increasing economic productivity, and improving the health of women around the world.

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Recognizing and monitoring women’s unpaid work, including housework, care and community services, is critical to addressing gender inequality and improving health. Here are some tips for recognizing and integrating the economic value of women’s unpaid work:

· Time-consuming survey: The government should regularly conduct time-consuming studies to measure how much unpaid work women do. Where women work unpaid. Social Security for Caregivers Unpaid Worker’s Retirement Scheme: Provides retirement and Social Security benefits for full-time workers and women who work unpaid, such as carers’ children. Workers are not paid at home. Redistribute care responsibilities

· Promote shared responsibilities: Promote policies such as paid paternity leave and flexible working hours to encourage men to take on care responsibilities. Reduce the burden of unpaid care for women. Caregiver Compensation

· Direct Compensation: Uses a program where caregivers receive financial assistance for medical care, especially care of the elderly or children in the family. Person in a supervisory role. Raise Awareness and Promote

· Public Campaign: Promote awareness campaigns to change the perception of unpaid work and demonstrate its economic benefits. Support women’s access to the labor market

· Education and career training: Provide job training and skills development to assist women who want to replace unpaid work. Create policies that support part-time, remote or flexible working hours so women can balance unpaid work with paid work. Law

· Employment Law includes: expanding the definition of work in law to include unpaid care and making it legally binding. Employment policy, financial planning and health protection. Corporate responsibility

· Workplace Support: Encourage businesses to have family-friendly policies such as childcare or flexible work arrangements. Contribute with unpaid work. Global Initiatives

· International cooperation: Encourage international organisations such as the United Nations and the International Labour Organisation to introduce pro bono work in the development process and evaluation financing. practical.

CONCLUSION:

Recognizing women’s unpaid work, from housework to childcare, requires significant economic and cultural change. Women’s unpaid work has long been considered “invisible” in traditional economic indicators such as GDP, which do not include the large sums generated and valued by domestic management. These activities, often divided along gender lines and poorly performed by women, support the economy by encouraging good work outside the home. For example, it has been estimated that if unpaid work were rewarded, its contribution could be as high as 40% of GDP in some countries. This suggests that we need to rethink our financial system to include and value all types of work, even if it generates direct financial benefits. Measures such as health benefits, recognition of unpaid work in the country, parental leave and flexible working conditions for women. These policy interventions should ensure equality and promote broader economic participation by addressing the root causes of the gender division of labor. It affects relationships, public health, and the overall health of families and communities. Recognizing and addressing these differences not only promotes gender equality, but also creates sustainable and inclusive business models that benefit all stakeholders for human development. Representation in the system is not only ethical, it is essential for business. The future of equitable and inclusive development depends on how people recognize, distribute, and reward this important form of work. Recognizing the reality of women’s contributions will bring us closer to a more just world.

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Received on 12.12.2024 Revised on 08.02.2025

Accepted on 04.04.2025 Published on 02.06.2025

Available online from June 05, 2025

Res. J. of Humanities and Social Sciences. 2025;16(2):87-94.

DOI: 10.52711/2321-5828.2025.00014

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Creative Commons License.

Year	Region/Study	Estimated Economic Value of Unpaid Labor	Key Findings
2018	UN Women, "Turning Promises into Action"	$10.8 trillion globally annually	Women's unpaid work constitutes 13% of global GDP.
2020	McKinsey Global Institute	$28 trillion globally if women participated equally in the workforce	Significant economic boost through gender parity.
2021	OECD, "The Role of Care"	$1.5 trillion in the US alone	Women perform 2.5 times more unpaid care than men.
2022	ILO, "World Employment and Social Outlook"	$3.3 trillion in Asia and the Pacific	Increased recognition of unpaid care work impacts policy.
2023	World Bank, "Women, Business, and the Law"	$7 trillion in unpaid domestic work	Unpaid labor undervalued; formal recognition needed.