INTRODUCTION:

The psychological and physical toll that women suffer from the combined demands of work and home duties has come to light more and more in recent decades. Often referred to as the "double burden," this phenomenon describes the constant problem that women experience while balancing their duties as employees and caregivers (Hochschild and Machung, 1989). The vast majority of authors believe that the Second World War was a major factor in the rise in female employment. The need for female labor to replace the "16 million men mobilized to serve in the Armed Forces" intensified during World War II. (Acemoglu et.al., 2004). As more women join the workforce, they continue to bear the majority of household and caregiving duties, leading to increased stress and mental health challenges. Even though gender equality has advanced significantly, especially in the workplace, women still frequently have to work a "second shift" at home, which can have a detrimental impact on their general health and emotional well-being. (Hochschild and Machung, 2012). Because women find it difficult to live up to the expectations set for them in both their home and professional lives, this imbalance has been connected to a number of psychological problems, such as chronic stress, anxiety, burnout, and depression. (Frone, 2003; Greenhaus and Beutell,1985). The inability to meet the demands of both spheres often leads to feelings of inadequacy and guilt, further contributing to psychological strain (Schneider et al., 2012).

Traditional Gender Roles and Expectations:

In many countries, the gender stereotype that assigns men the job of breadwinner and women the role of homemaker and child care is still prevalent. And because it either minimizes or restricts women's participation in the workforce, this stereotype continues to be the primary source of occupational segregation. In Parsons' view of the modern world, marriage and the family were based on mutually beneficial economic and affectional ties, with the female's ability to manage the expressive aspects of family life and childrearing complementing the male's ability to perform instrumental (or public, productive, and managerial) work (Conway et al., 1987). However, Michael Dunlop Young and Willmott, 1973 in their book ‘The Symmetrical Family: A Study of Work and Leisure in the London Region’ argued that a new style of family life has emerged. Younger couples were dividing up domestic chores more symmetrically, according to their research on families in London. They acknowledged that the jobs were increasingly collaborative; however, they were not identical (Young and Willmott, 1973). A primary factor contributing to this phenomenon is the increasing number of women entering the workforce. Nonetheless, women predominantly perform the majority of domestic tasks. In 1989, Arlie Hochschild introduced the term "second shift" to characterize the additional responsibilities faced by employed women in heterosexual marriages with working men, encompassing significant hours of unpaid labor, devoid of context or qualifications. Hochschild posits that a metaphor associated with industrial life contributed to the conceptualization of the second shift. Women engage in a dual workload, contributing to the paid workforce during their first shift and undertaking unpaid domestic responsibilities in a second shift. Women engage in various domestic responsibilities, including household management, cooking, cleaning, and child care (Brailey, 2019).

Role Expectations and Role Strain:

Women and girls are frequently expected to perform unpaid caregiving and household chores due to the gendered nature of domestic and reproductive duties. (Chauhan, 2021). William J. Goode's 1960 paper "A Theory of Role Strain" suggests that when a person wants to fulfill a certain duty, he may run across a lot of demands and conflicts related to his job, which he interprets as role strains. Human beings engage in a vast array of role relationships, each with somewhat different obligations. In his whole role network, he cannot meet all these needs to the pleasure of everyone. Role strain therefore occurs when anyone is having difficulty in meeting given role demands (Goode, 1960). On the contrasting view Sieber in 1974 proposed a theory in his article “Toward a theory of role accumulation”. It is debatable if having many roles leads to a significant propensity for role strain as a result of role overload or role conflict. The benefits of role accumulation tend to outweigh any stress to which it might give rise, thereby yielding net gratification. Net gratification results from role accumulation since its advantages typically exceed whatever tension it may cause (Sieber, 1974). While the relational aspect of unpaid work, like playing with children, may be fulfilling and stress-reducing, physically taxing domestic duties, which account for the majority of poorer women's overall unpaid work burden, can generate significant fatigue and stress. By understanding the mental health implications of women’s dual responsibility, the review will offer insights into the need for systemic changes in both the workplace and at home to improve the mental health and well-being of working women.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY:

With more women entering the job and taking on the majority of household chores at the same time, the "double burden," or the dual demands of work and home life, has gained attention in the research community. The continued expectation that women handle both work and family responsibilities is still a major obstacle, even in the face of significant advancements in gender equality in the workplace. Numerous mental and physical health problems can arise from this dual responsibility, when women are expected to perform well in their jobs and provide care for others. In particular, the overwhelming strain to reconcile conflicting demands in both areas of life can have a significant negative influence on working women's mental health. While a lot of study has been done on work-related stress and how it affects mental health, less research has been done on how workplace stress and household overload interact and how this worsens mental health problems for women. The expanding literature on the topic examines a number of important topics, such as the effects of juggling both paid work and unpaid household work on one's mental health. These studies demonstrate how women's well-being and quality of life are negatively impacted by the dual burden on an emotional and cognitive level. With an emphasis on how the conflicting demands of work and home life contribute to psychological distress, this review paper attempts to summarize the body of research on the double burden and its effects on women's mental health. It will also address how factors such as workplace policies, partner support, and cultural norms either alleviate or exacerbate the mental health effects experienced by working women.

LITERATURE REVIEW:

The literature on workplace stress has long documented its adverse impact on mental health, with factors such as high job demands, job insecurity, and workplace discrimination contributing to elevated stress levels. However, the compounded effect of domestic responsibilities has gained increasing attention in recent years. Women, particularly in dual-earner households, frequently juggle their professional and domestic roles, leading to what is termed work-family conflict (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985).

The WHO report “Progress of the world’s women 2019–2020: Families in a changing world” found that women perform three times as much unpaid care and household labor as men worldwide, and while gender differences vary by country, they are particularly noticeable in developing countries. Asian countries are particularly affected by the double load issue because of the pervasive cultural expectation that women should handle caregiving responsibilities that are typically handled by both men and women. There are significant differences in the experiences of women in unpaid caregiving and domestic work between high- and low-income countries, as well as across different economic groups within a single country. By outsourcing more burdensome home chores, such as by hiring domestic help and care services, higher-earning mothers worldwide are able to spend more time and attention with their children. In contrast, repetitive, time-consuming, and physically taxing household chores frequently fall on women who lack the financial resources. While the relationship aspect of unpaid work, like playing with kids, may be gratifying and stress-relieving, the drudgery component, which accounts for the majority of poorer women's overall unpaid job burden, may generate significant weariness and stress (WHO, Progress of the World’s Women 2019–2020: Families in a Changing World, 2023).

On the similar issue of time spent on unpaid care by men and women another WHO report “Delivered by Women, Led by Men: A Gender and Equity Analysis of the Global Health and Social Workforce, 2019” found that the amount of time that men and women spend doing unpaid care differs significantly; women provide two to ten times as much time. Women usually put in over three hours more of unpaid work every day than men do. For example, women are expected to take care of their families, homes, children, and elderly relatives. In lower-income countries, women are more likely to devote time to household chores including grocery shopping, household travel, and gathering water and firewood. Occupational downgrading, which keeps women in part-time or unstable jobs, is intimately related to unpaid caregiving. Additionally, because of ingrained patriarchal institutions and national accounting systems that do not account for women's overall income, unpaid care work is frequently seen as having little value and being invisible in mainstream economics. WHO, “Delivered by Women, Led by Men: A Gender and Equity Analysis of the Global Health and Social Workforce, 2019).

Men's involvement in housework has not significantly increased since women entered the workforce. The majority of housework is still done by women, according to multiple surveys (Hooff, 2011), which adds to the labor that women are expected to perform. In contrast to males, women's income also affects how many domestic chores they perform. Women do less housework as their income rises, and vice versa. On the other hand, men's household chores either stay the same or barely alter over the course of their lives. Depending on their qualifications, women spend different amounts of time on household duties. (Carrasco and Domínguez, 2011). Women from a variety of geographical locations, socioeconomic backgrounds, and cultural backgrounds devote a significant portion of their day to fulfilling the demands of their domestic and reproductive tasks due to gendered social norms that regard unpaid caregiving as a female prerogative. In addition to their paid job, this adds to the "double burden" of work that women bear. (Ferrant et.al, 2014)

According to Vitaliano et al. (2003), unpaid care and household labor is linked to a higher mental health burden and a lower quality of life. The "double burden" of both paid and unpaid labor has various impacts on different people; women appear to be more affected than males by household stress (Mortensen et al., 2017). In addition, women reported a substantially greater burden than males in the areas of physical demand, overall/total workload, frustration, and total effort when evaluating unpaid domestic chores. (Cezar-Vaz et. al., 2022). Compared to males, women tended to feel higher levels of stress connected to housework. (Hagqvist et.al., 2012). According to Honda et al. (2014), women who provide long-term or high-intensity care for an ailing or elderly relative are more likely to have psychological morbidity, such as depression, anxiety, and decreased life satisfaction.

In their study, Schieman and Glavin (2008) discovered that although men also struggle to balance work and other priorities, women are more affected because they handle the majority of household chores in addition to caring for elderly family members, children, and other dependents. Combining family and career responsibilities is frequently linked to conflict and stress, even if it can provide employed women with a variety of satisfactions. Conversely, Asma Begum et al. (2022) discovered that spending more time with family and carrying out family duties enhances job performance and lowers health problems and work-life conflicts. According to Shobha Sundaresan (2014), the main variables influencing working women's work-life balance are the strain of excessive work, the need to meet the expectations of others, and a lack of personal leisure. As a result, women face high levels of stress and anxiety, burn out at work, fail to reach their full potential, and have trouble having a happy family life. According to Amandeep Kaur Sidhu et al. (2017), patterns of family chores have not changed much, even though more women are working. They stated that regardless of their work position, women continue to handle the majority of household chores. Therefore, many female employees still struggle to strike a balance between these two influences. Additionally, it was discovered that career achievement, organizational loyalty, and job happiness are all positively correlated with work-based assistance for women.

METHODOLOGY:

The literature was examined through four comprehensive clusters of keywords: working women, double burden, unpaid domestic labor, and mental health. Boolean operators will combine terms (e.g., "working women AND double burden AND women's mental health"). The search imposed no restrictions regarding language or year. Only studies published in peer-reviewed journals or reputable sources that address women’s mental health and the dual burden of work and domestic responsibilities were included in the review process. The author reviewed articles and examined the references of relevant articles to identify additional pertinent studies. Initially, the titles and abstracts of all identified articles were reviewed according to the established criteria for inclusion and exclusion. The full texts of the articles that met the criteria were retrieved and reviewed in detail. Articles addressing the intersection of working women and the double burden, which incorporate data on women's mental health, were included. Studies failing to meet the established criteria were excluded.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

It has been reported by the World Health Organisation (WHO) that women work longer hours than men, with women taking on three times the amount of labor that men do. As a result of cultural conventions that commonly assign caring obligations to women, the double load problem is especially prevalent in underdeveloped countries. When compared to males, women devote anywhere from two to 10 times more time to providing unpaid care, which amounts to approximately three additional hours each day on average.

There has not been a significant increase in the amount of males participating in domestic responsibilities as a result of the entry of women into the job market. This is because women continue to carry out the majority of the work. It has been found that the amount of housework that women undertake is inversely proportional to their income, with a drop in housework occurring as income increases. The amount of time that men devote to performing duties around the house is consistently low, whereas the amount of time that women devote to these tasks varies across the board depending on their credentials. Considering that same-sex couples do not adhere to a fixed "gender script" as heterosexual couples do, it is pertinent to examine whether the allocation of unpaid care and household responsibilities is more equitable among same-sex couples compared to opposite-sex couples. In Australia in 2016, same-sex couples exhibited a higher likelihood than opposite-sex couples to engage in unpaid household labor, including cooking, cleaning, and gardening. Specifically, 57% of female same-sex couples and 56% of male same-sex couples contributed approximately equal amounts of unpaid domestic work. In contrast, only 39% of heterosexual couples share the responsibilities equally (Churchill and Craig, 2021).

There have been a number of studies that have reported on the effects that dual responsibility has on the mental health of women. The findings of studies indicate that unpaid domestic and care work is associated with increased mental health burdens and negative affects on quality of life. This is especially true for women, who are more likely to experience stress related to household responsibilities. greater levels of stress, greater workloads, and perceived stress are all things that women report experiencing. A correlation exists between the provision of long-term care for sick or elderly family members and an increased risk of psychiatric morbidity in female consumers.

When it comes to successfully juggling the simultaneous duties of work and home, maintaining a healthy work-life balance is an essential component. Because females are typically the ones who take on the majority of the tasks around the house, women frequently have difficulties in balancing their work commitments with other objectives. There is a possibility that conflict and tension will arise as a result of the interaction between occupational and familial duties. Taking care of one's family duties can help reduce the risk of health problems, lessen the impact of work-life conflicts, and improve one's performance at work.

While females continue to dominate parental leave in many countries, there is an increasing trend of fathers taking more leave, particularly in nations that offer specific incentives such as "daddy quotas," which allocate a non-transferable portion of leave that must be utilised or forfeited. Research indicates that fathers who remain at home during the early stages of parenthood can develop a sense of accountability that enables them to engage in active coparenting, regardless of the legislative context. (WHO, Progress of the World’s Women 2019–2020: Families in a Changing World, 2023).

CONCLUSION:

The "double burden" that working women bear, which involves juggling unpaid domestic work with professional work, continues to be a major problem that affects their general and mental health. The reviewed literature demonstrates the complex nature of this burden by showing how the combination of excessive domestic responsibilities and workplace stress results in major psychological strain, including elevated levels of stress, anxiety, depression, and burnout. Because they can't fully meet the needs of either realm, women who shoulder the majority of both paid and unpaid labor are more prone to feel guilty, worn out, and inadequate. The study repeatedly shows that the double burden has deeper structural roots, including gendered societal expectations, unequal domestic labor distribution, and inadequate support networks at work, rather than being solely the result of personal decisions or management. Although the impacts of professional stress on mental health are well known, women find it more difficult to maintain a healthy work-life balance when they also have to deal with the additional burden of household responsibilities. Furthermore, these mental health issues are made worse by the social expectation that women do well in both domestic and professional responsibilities, which feeds a never-ending stress cycle. A comprehensive strategy involving both individual and systemic treatments is needed to address the double burden. In order to relieve some of the stresses that women experience, workplace policies like paid family leave, reasonably priced childcare, and flexible work schedules are essential. Reducing the mental health burden on women also requires a societal shift toward a more equitable division of household work and a reinterpretation of gender roles in caregiving. Deeply rooted gender stereotypes that lay disproportionate expectations on women must also be challenged through societal awareness, educational programs, and legislative changes. It is critical to change how society views gender roles. Women's burdens can be lessened by enlisting men to help with household chores and promoting gender-neutral standards for parenting and caregiving. The media, communities, and schools can all have a big impact on how people view the division of labor. Raising awareness of the mental and physical effects of the double burden among men and women can foster empathy in society and support for laws that advance gender equality. Long-term reform requires support for workplace equality, women's rights, and family-friendly laws.

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Received on 27.11.2024 Revised on 30.12.2024

Accepted on 12.02.2025 Published on 19.03.2025

Available online from March 28, 2025

Res. J. of Humanities and Social Sciences. 2025;16(1):13-18.

DOI: 10.52711/2321-5828.2025.00003

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