INTRODUCTION:

In 1792, Gulab Singh was born in the area around Jammu. He was a descendant of the powerful Hindu king Dhruv Dev. In the year 1809, he became the first member of his family to enlist in the army of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, shortly after his brothers Dhian Singh and Suchet Singh, as well as his nephew Hira Singh.

Gulab Singh rose quickly through the ranks of the Sikh hierarchy as a result of the success he had with his army in the battlefield. His ascent to power was so spectacular that a French explorer named Victor Jacquemont came to refer to him as "the greatest Lord in the Punjab; Second only to the Sikh Maharaja."

¹Gulab Singh was one of the noteworthy figures in the history of 19th century in India.² It is one of the great paradoxes of Kashmir history that Gulab Singh, the first of the Dogra rulers, came to possess Kashmir not by any conquest of the land but through an intrigue that shall remain an memorable chapter in Indian history.³According to the author of “Gulabnama” Gulab Singh was taken into the service of Ranjit Singh as a regimental commander. But by the time of Ranjit Singh’s death in 1839, Gulab Singh had succeeded in establishing his authority in Jammu and the neighboring principalities.⁴ When Maharaja Gulab Singh took charge of administration, conditions in Kashmir were miserable.⁵ the country was disturbed each man plundered his neighbor and Gulab Singh energy were taxed to the utmost in restoring order. He was a man of extraordinary power, and very quickly asserted his authority.⁶He was most successful in preventing and suppressing Crime. The credit goes to Gulab Singh that he laid the foundation of a strong personal rule in a different area of the country. He repressed opposition and a crime with a stern hand.²“Gulab Singh brought the principle of personal rule to perfection and showed the people that he could stand by himself. The state was Maharaja Gulab Singh.”⁷First of all he tried to promote trade and commerce and succeeded in his object. Nicholson records in his Government diary, “I had an occasion to meet a party of Kabul traders, who were going to Kashmir with tobacco and snuff for trade purposes and were getting puttoo and Shahtosh which were being sold on very high rates in Kabul. I also talked with them for a little while and they complained of the oppressive duties but in their own and Maharaja Gulab Singh’s territories but remarked that in the later their goods were protected, from the plundering tribes between Kabul and Peshawar.⁹

Gulab Singh took enormous steps for the administrative system of Kashmir. He established departments for the civil Administration system which follows:

REVENUE DEPARTMENT:

Before Gulab Singh, the whole system of assessment and collection was exceedingly complex and workable only in the interest of corrupt officials; and government held a monopoly in the sale of Grains.¹⁰ Maharaja Gulab Singh, during his lifetime did very little to ameliorate this state of things. He took things as he found them and troubled little to improve them.¹¹His first care was to consolidate his power and ensure his revenue. By dint of untiring industry and by strict supervision of his officials; he made most of the revenue of the valley. He kept a sharp eye on his officials and a close hand on his revenue. He toured his state often.² in each village Numbardars “mokdams” were appointed. The department “Doabjinsh” was created to get revenue in kind and was to be realized twice a year after the end of each harvest. It was the duty of Kardar to assess revenue at the time of crop harvest. Kashmir was divided into thirty six parganas. Gulab Singh had instructed that the revenue of ten parganas near the city was to be realized at a fair rate. He has given choice to zamindars to sell rice where they liked. But the condition is price should not be higher than rupee one a Khirwar. The Government order authorizing free movement and free sale of rice by the Zamindars was issued under the signature and seal of Maharaja Gulab Singh himself.⁸ In order to counter the disastrous effects of famine caused by the failure of crops Maharaja Gulab Singh decided to control grain trade because on account of inadequate means of communication the transfer of grain from the various parts of India to Kashmir or even from one place to another in the Valley was difficult. Moreover, the landlords and grain dealers were in the habit of creating scarcity by corning rice in order to increase profits. The grain dealers, of course suffered due to this policy of Government. But Maharaja refused to give up his policy. He constructed a number of storehouses in Srinagar and different towns of the valley. In the department of “Doabjins” four collectors were appointed. The department which was called Daftar-i-Diwani was created for the auditing and checking accounts belonging to all departments⁸the third departments were called Daftar-i-Nizamat (Land Record Office). Its duty was to keep land records throughout the state and to inform the Maharaja about the condition of the zamindars. At the end of each harvest, Patwaris were sent to their respective villages to prepare reports, giving in full the detail of daily rations, firewood or other thing of necessity issued to the people ⁸ “The fourth department set up by the Maharaja was to maintain peace and to prevent and suppress crime. He believed in object lessons and his penal system was at any rate successful in ridding the country crime. Kotwals and Thanedars were appointed for the protection of life and property of the people.¹⁶

JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION:

There were no special courts during this period for the Administration of Justice. Every official who was holding responsible post could administer both civil and criminal cases.⁸The Maharaja was the highest court of appeal. He ruled his subjects with a stern hand. If he wanted their services would have them without resorting to the old-fashioned advice of paying for them.² Nobody paid any court fee.¹⁶ If a man was not satisfied with the judgment of thanadars and kardars, he should make an appeal to the Maharaja by going to his durbar and offering a rupee as “nazar” (present) anyone could catch his eye by holding up a rupee and crying out “Maharaja arz hai!” i.e. “Maharaja, a petition.” He would pounce down like a hawk on the money, and having appropriate it would patiently hear out the petitioner.⁵His justice was rough and rude. He toured his State often, and was relentless in his punishment of corrupt and tyrannical officials. In murder cases his punishment was (Ashab) which consisted in cutting off the nose, arms or legs of the culprits. Such ideas of justice were also owned by his successors.³ it is said that once a criminal petitioned the Maharaja for pardon. The crime was the murder of a girl for her jewels. The Maharaja was enraged at this and he enhanced the sentence to that man.⁸

REORGANIZATION SHAWL INDUSTRY:

Gulab Singh turned his full attention towards the improvement of Shawl industry department.¹⁷ it was also called Dagshawl or shawl making department^.5 this department was under one Controller, under whom there were Nukdee Karkhandars^{. 18} they became very rich. The Shawl weavers on the other hand, were dependent upon the Karkhandars and were virtually their slaves and were forced to work very hard.²⁶ Mir Izzatullah in his travels found that wafarush financing shawl manufactures, and the muqims appraising shawls. All merchants made their purchases through muqims.¹⁹“Befores 1833 the duty on shawls was levied according to the number made and stamped in the year at the rate of three annas in the rupee.²⁰ This was found unsuitable and in 1835 General Main Singh, the Sikh Governor of Kashmir, established the Baj, or fixed amount of tax, to be paid by each shop. He levied tax of ninety-six rupees per shop per year and this tax was levied on one thousand shops. When Ghulam Mohi-ud-din took over the charge of Governorship, he raised tax from Rs.96 to 120 per year per shop^.18

In 1846 Sheikh Imam-ud-din the last Sikh Governor gave them a little relief by setting the Shawl weavers free from bondage of Karkhandars and remitting two annas per Kharwar in the rate of shali advanced as niliv. This revived the Industry and during Gulab Singh’s rule there were 27,000 weavers working at 11,000 looms. But the wages paid to the workmen were miserably low. The karkhandars managed to keep the workers on perpetual bondage.⁵When the Maharaja took over the administration he reorganized the shawl-department and renumbered the workmen. In the beginning new shops were charged half the tax. In 1847 Karkhandars requested the Maharaja to count the number of workers yearly Nazrana should be reduced. The wages of worker should be fixed and a settled constitution should be framed for them. First of all Maharaja Gulab Singh stopped the system of wait (Moulut) due to which accounts of laborers were continued to the 14th month by their masters. Secondly, he cancelled the unnecessary taxes as Chuttnia. There was another bad system that workman was not allowed to change his master and these poor people were paid less wages. When the Maharaja came to know of this, he raised their pay to 5^1/4 annas in the rupee and made it binding for the workmen to do a fixed minimum of work. On 6th June, 1847 all the workers struck and stopped their work and asked for permission to immigrate to Punjab. Gulab Singh called their leaders to meet him. The Maharaja investigated their grievances in an open Durbar and then at a new Durbar held in July 1847, he declared that a workman was not bound to work under one master. He was given freedom and his wages were fixed four annas per rupee. The reorganization of shawl department was a great achievement, as it has various advantages:

1. The baft system ensured that the tax should be regulated by the price of the shawl in market.

2. The karkhandar had to pay only according to the work done in shop.

3. The shagrid was no longer salve.¹⁸

QUESTION OF JAGIRS:

When Gulab Singh came to power, He had to face the problem of Jagirdari in his kingdom; it was brought to his notice that there were no less than 3,115 Jagirs granted to different persons. Out of these many were unregistered. On his first visit to valley he said I had got nothing in return for 75 lakhs of rupees as 2/3 of the area which was under hills and mountains was not suitable for cultivation and rest 1/3 area was under jagirdars with the help of some local aristocrats persons headed by rajakak he was able to get Some jagirs of newly granted jagirdars. This naturally created widespread discontent among the landlords which were deprived from their jagirs. They were against Gulab Singh and his adviser but he did not mind it.⁵ unfortunately people complained, misinterpreted his intentions and motives and so protested that he was depriving them of their old Jagirs. Taylor who had separately investigated mentioned in his report, “The Maharaja was to be just and reasonable. His point was that people who began as revenue farmers should not claim the land they held in farms to be Jagirs, that grants when made should be strictly adhered to, that grantees who were given one acre should not be allowed to possess two on| the same sanad, and that in cases of treason, rebellion, and gross misbehavior the Jagirs should be liable to resumption.²¹

SYSTEM OF FORCED LABOUR:

The Another curse introduced by Sikhs but taken to its extreme by the dogras, was the system of forced labour known as “begaar” which has been defined by foreign visitors as “forced labour” but it was something worse than that; it was free forced labour. The system assumed extremely dreadful proportions in Kashmir valley under the early Dogras mainly because of the frontier wars for conquest and the consequent necessity of providing the troops on the move as well as the huge military establishments in the conquered territories with adequate supplies.²⁹ The Kashmir being surrounded by high mountains and bad means of transport necessitated the employment of large number of men for carrying luggage and essential commodities in the Valley or out of valley. In order to relieve peasants from injustice and oppression, The Maharaja undertook the reform of beggar system. The earliest mention of beggar is in Rajatrangni, when king Samkaravarman (the son and successor of Avantivarman) employed large number of men in order to carry the baggage of his soldiers. During Mughal rule it developed as a regular institution, which was later on continued by Afghans, Sikhs and Dogras.⁵ Gulab Singh tried to rationalize the system and to mitigate some of the hardships it entailed. “His idea was to determine a certain number of men in each village who wanted to work when called by the government. When they were employed government paid them one kharwar of rice monthly and free ration Men who were not called for work were paid six kharwar for that year.¹⁸Maharaja regulated beggar and appointed special officer for this work.”² The beggar system continued for few decades but at last the public opinion developed against it outside Kashmir and it was abrogated⁵ by introducing these administrative reforms Gulab Singh established peace end order in the country. Lawrence observes he was a great vigour, foresight and determination ruler of dogras.⁷

SOCIAL REFORMS:

One of the greatest acts of humanity, for which Gulab Singh deserve external honor, is the eradication of Sati and infanticide. A widow, who burnt herself at the funeral pyre of her Lord, as her last act of devotion, was called a suttee. The word “sat” is probably derived from Sanskrit, the equivalent English of which is “Truth”. In course of time, the word Suttee began to be applied as an act of self-immolation, it has a long tradition and reference to it, found in ancient books, gave it the color of religious ceremony. Suttee was an act, a privilege and an honor, accompanied by the recitation of sacred verses and involving the burning of the widowed women at the funeral pyre. This cruel rite of the Suttee was present in Kashmir from remote times, for the first time it was abolished by Sultan Sikender, His son, Ali Shah, continued the prohibition; Zain-ul-Abiden revived it. The custom, however, continued long in the neighboring hill states.²³ Sati i.e. the burning of the widow on the funeral pyre of her husband seemed to be rapidly disappearing from Jammu region. Frederic Drew says that ‘this practice has absolutely ceased within the country of the Maharaja^’24, but we, however, find few instances of Sati in Jammu region. The idea behind the practice of Sati would be clear from the following passage in Colebrook’s “Digest of Hindu Law” an authoritative manual of Hindu law prepared by the Government with the help of learned Brahmins No other effectual duty is known for virtuous women at any time after the deaths of their lords, except casting themselves into the same fire’. According to the Digest, failure of a widow to do this duty might lead to her rebirth as animals, while its faithful observance would not only enable her to enjoy delight with her husband for eternity but also expiate the sins of her husband’s maternal and paternal ancestors up to three generations.²⁵The origin of Sati lies in our ancient society when it was considered as a most respected social institution.²⁶ During the Governorship of Kirpa Ram (1826-30) as a result of which Maharaja Gulab Singh took robust steps to suppress this evil in Jammu and Kashmir.²⁷

Frederic Drew cited few cases of Sati among Rajput in Jammu region. He writes “Though not practice in the case of everyone who became a widow, yet it was followed as a general rule by more than one caste and was probably, the most strictly carried out by the Mians. It applied to all the widows of the deceased.” The following frightful instance occurred on the death of Raja Suchet Singh, brother of Maharaja Gulab Singh.²⁴

During Sikh plights in Lahore Suchet Singh was killed. His house was located at Ramnagar, in the hills of Jammu. He had ten or eleven wives and the number of women in his establishment – attendants were almost 300. Of these, a few who were with him committed Sati at the spot near Lahore where his body was burned. The greater number of them was at Ramnagar, and there his head was taken for burning, the wives and women, who were there, to the number of 150, gave themselves to the flames with it. The sacrifice of the whole number was completed by those who were not present at Ramnagar committing Sati at the places where they happened to be when the news of their master`s death reached them; thus, at Jummoo, 10 or 15 of the women, who were there at that time, were burned on the pyre.²⁴ In another case when Raja Hira Singh, was killed, his widows committed this suicide at a place called Parmandal near Jumbo. There was a large square stage made up of fagots, with a rough roof raised over it; then on the fagots ghi, that is, clarified butter, was placed to increase the violence of the flames, the women, twenty two in number, were placed on the platform, the wood was fired and the burning was finished without a scream or a voice being heard from them.²⁴But not always did the widow gave herself up willingly to the fate prepared for her by that stern master, social custom. There was also universal custom among the Mians to destroy female infant form to them. When the girl child was born it was taken from its mother either exposes in forest or buried alive.²⁴ but the crime of infanticide was supposed to be much practiced in his family. In 1847 he issued an order and proclaimed, “Whereas a proclamation prohibiting Infanticide, Suttee and Slavery, hateful to God and man has previously been issued, in order that it may be better known to everyone we hereby for, the second time declare Suttee, slavery and Infanticide unlawful and any person convicted of these crimes, the whole of their property shall he confiscated and they shall be imprisoned.²⁸

MILITARY REFORMS:

Gulab Singh regularly supervised the army, their arms and beddings, if any soldier became sick, his sickness was reported to the Maharaja. Without delay a physician was at once dispatched for his treatment and medicines were supplied to him free of charge.⁸ the efficiency and training of his forces was matters of deep concern to him. He repaired all the forts and deputed army in these forts. Hill levies were organized into regiments. Besides, a code of military instructions and orders was drawn up by him. He coined the words of command in Sanskrit and his regiments were called by the name of Gobardhan Regiment, the Raghunath Regiment and Lachhman Regiment. The name of these regiments was taken from the Hindu traditions. He trusted much on his Dogra army. The capability of this army was accepted by India and its adjoining States and this army turned successful many a time in frontier disputes of Gilgit. As Gulab Singh was growing strong, he started a factory in his State for producing arms and ammunitions.¹⁸

CONCLUSION:

As his dominion grew and brought him comfort, Gulab Singh assumed control. He is invested with all judicial and executive authority. Gulab Singh deserves external praise for his efforts to end the barbaric practises of Sati and infanticide; anyone found guilty of these offences had their possessions seized and they were sentenced to prison. In addition, he improved the begging system and the shawl business. He deprived jagirdars of their jagirs. He had faith in the power of the real world as a teacher, and his prison system was effective in its mission to cleanse the country of crime. Kotwals and Thanedars were put in place to safeguard citizens' lives and possessions.

REFERENCES:

1. Victor Jacquemint, Letters from India, London, 1835, vol. ii, p. 166

2. Sufi, G.M.D. Kashir Being a History of Kashmir, Lahore 1949,

3. Gadru, S.N. Kashmir papers British Invention in Kashmir, New Delhi,1973.

4. Thorburn, S.S. The Punjab Peace and war, London, 1870

5. Bamzai P.N.K. Culture and Political History of Kashmir, New Delhi.1994

6. The Imperial Gazetteer of India, London 1908, vol. xv, p. 94

7. Lawrence, Walter Roper, The valley of Kashmir, London, 1895

8. Koul, Salig Ram The Bibliography of Maharaja Gulab Singh, Srinagar, 1923

9. Nicholson Diary, 19 nov.1847, vol.vi, p.321.

10. Kripa, Ram. Gulzar-i-Kashmir, Lahore 1870,

11. Younghusband, Sir Francis. History of Kashmir, 1909

12. Nargis Narsing Dass History of Dogra Desh, Jammu, 1966

13. Bazaz, P.N, History of Struggle for Freedom in Kashmir, New Delhi ,1954

14. Panikkar, P.M, Gulab Singh the founder of Jammu and Kashmir, Srinagar 1930

15. Travels in Central Asia Translated by Captain Henderson, Calcutta 1872 p.4

16. Tyers Report Punjab Poltical Diaries vol. Vol II, pp. 44-45

17. Punjab Political Diaries vol.vi, p.60

18. Saraf, Kashmir fight for freedom, 177, Vol.I

19. Parmu, R. K, A History of Muslim rule in Kashmir, Delhi 1969

20. Drew Frederick, the Jammu and Kashmir Territories a Geographical Account, London 1875

21. R.C Majumdar, p.268-269

22. K.P Bahadur, History, Caste and Culture of Rajputs, Delhi, 1978

23. D.C Sharma, Kashmir under Sikhs, Delhi, 1988

24. Abstract Translation of proclamation of Gulab Singh 1847

25. Koul, G.L. Kashmir through the Ages, Srinagar,1963

Received on 29.07.2023 Modified on 27.08.2023

Res. J. Humanities and Social Sciences. 2023; 14(4):169-173.

DOI: 10.52711/2321-5828.2023.00035