INTRODUCTION:

Ghazal originated in Asian country within the tenth-century anno Domini (AD). It originated from the Persian qasida, that in literary composition had reached Iran coming from Arabia. Praises of Kings or his nobles were also qasida, which was written in panegyric form. The part of the qasida referred to as tashbib got detached and developed throughout the years into the Ghazal, we know today [1]. Whereas the qasida generally saw as many as a hundred couplets or more in forms of mono-rhyme, and thus, the Ghazal rarely exceeded the limit of twelve and was always under the median of seven. The Ghazals have eclipsed the qasida, thus becoming one of the most popular forms of poetry in Asia, owing to its popularity to increasing appreciations of compression as well as the concentration of its richness in themes and suggestions.

With the arrival of Muslim influence in the country, the ghazals emerged in the Indian subcontinent from the twelfth century onwards. When the Mughals spread their rule in the country, they had a rich collection of Iranian poetry and literary works, which was a representative of their own culture and civilisation. With the growth of Persian dominance, Urdu also spread across the country and developed as a language, with a huge scope for poetry and its impact on culture was a fruit of the Indo-Iranian culture.[1].

‘Ghazal’ means ‘conversations with women’ in literal terms, and just like its genre, this Arabic verse originated in the sixth century. The earliest forms had two broad themes in general. Either an elegy over lost love or the rakish celebration consisting of women, wine and songs. From the onset of the eleventh century, ghazal saw its transition as the elegiac theme now got more fame when it started to include more fragments of mystical overtones, which also incorporates emotions of detachment, hardships faced through physical separation from the beloved, as well as the representation of a yearning lover as a loyal martyr. ‘A Literary History of Persia’ by E.G. Browne’ which is a four-volume compilation, which includes a comprehensive history of Persian ghazal is described in intricate details which have developed in centuries [2]. Medieval ghazal gained more prestige in different languages like Urdu and Turkish through Persian language. It developed major traditions over the centuries, and early Urdu cultivated quite a number of ghazal poetry, which gained major developments in the Deccan during the Mughal period. The migration to the north, begun from the 18^th century and it was a very complex and integrated process for Urdu poetry.[2].

All forms of poetry can trace its origins from certain form of poetry, however, Ghazals contain enormous treasures of earlier Persian and Urdu verses. While looking at the earliest origins of Urdu poetry, it contains within itself a mixture of Persian/Urdu verses and lines. The earliest Persian and Urdu Ustads resorted to memorising thousands of verses, as a part of their classical training. Various technical terms were in place for use of another artist’s work, which could either be deliberate or accidental. If this action was intentional, it could either be an accolade or a provocation or a combination of both. This could then be an ingenious evolution, inventive conscience, or maybe even a despicable emulation mostly if this act was unpremeditated.

After the introduction of ghazal into English poetry, some queries arose within the minds of the western poets while interpreting or writing the ghazals. How are the self-sufficing couplets, which can be picked, reordered, and shuffled, part of a whole ghazal? There were, perhaps, some queries within the minds of the western poets once they were interpreting or writing the ghazals. However, may be the self-sufficing couplets, which might be selected, reordered, and shuffled, a part of a whole ghazal? What makes it sure that they aren’t even thematically connected to one other, every couplet encompassing a distinct notion, complete altogether senses, a definite feeling, a universe encapsulated within itself? Whereas one couplet talks concerning unrequited love, the opposite dialogues concerning man’s separation from God, thus how could be a ghazal, in contrast to a western literary work, unified? The question of unity haunts the inhabitant attempting to know the ghazal. Is a ghazal ought to be taken at the amount of full literary work, or at the amount of the couplet? Is there any sort of unity within the ghazal at all? The concept of Eurocentrism which was predominant among the west was one of the first reasons which has been described by Lisa Sewell as ‘the dark period for the genre [3],’ and therefore the progress of free verse ghazals did not contain any unity of a structural form in a ghazal. “Formally speaking, the ghazal is aforementioned to be unified: as its verses contain rhyme, meter, and typically end-refrain also, it's a strong symmetry and cohesion. While accessing content, however, every verse in a couplet is a freelance, free-standing literary work, creating its result with its internal resources. Apart from some exceptional and special cases, there's no narrative or logical “flow” from a verse it's consecutive one; if the few verses were rearranged, or one or two verses were removed, sometimes the action wouldn't even be detectable. Whereas such a course of action would fatally destroy a sonnet to some extent, it might have very little, or no impact on most of the ghazals” [4].

Urdu is a poetic language in which, even the conversations sound lyrical and the sentences sound like they are full of rhymes and rhythm is used in its speech. This language is so zestful and pliable that in it, multiple uses and meaning can be inferred from a single word. Poet I.H. Rizvi illustrates in one of the early issue Contemporary Ghazals [5], about the word ‘lana’ , that could either translate to ‘form’ or can be used in different tenses in a number of ways with no need for spelling change, like meaning phrases such as ‘will make’, ‘have formed’, ‘were assembled’, and many others. The flexibility in these words individually is what makes Urdu very condensed and strong language. While translating terms literally from Urdu to English, the length of the poem comes only to four or more lines. Urdu poets have the capability to convey in more than one individual couplet. Due to this, at times English is considered as being inferior to Urdu by some and also why maybe a cause of the development of the tercet-ghazal by Robert Bly in the English language.

Migration was a typical trend within the postcolonial era as folks started to visit the different sections of the world to seek employment, or maybe for procuring higher education, or because of political objections or problems. The return to home was quite severe because the purpose of migration was sometimes never temporary. Global free enterprise has created the spread measure extraordinarily elevated; however, simultaneously straightforward. This motivated folks from completely distinctive places to settle in locations that are diverse in geography as well as culture. These kinds of people are famously known as "diaspora". Diaspora then refers to people who leave their native surround by force or their own accord. This word was initially used to describe the Jews who had to leave their homeland during the demolition of a predominant temple of Solomon; now this term lately is being used for people who are displaced from their origins. Diaspora encompasses a secure connection with fatherland, helping people realise their ethnocultural cluster connected to a selected to a fragment of an "imagined community" that is often a present mental idea for them, still beautiful and of great importance.[9]. It is home for them, before any other aspect, an area where the person had stayed for the vicinity of his life and forms an explanation for need and desire. Diasporic writing show amazing connection and a striking balance between native culture and the migrated culture whilst attaining a hybrid identity for the individual. These writers attempt to emote their expressions through uses phrases to denote deprivation and problems faced while adapting to contemporary culture. Diaspora writers express their perspectives on longing and separation of identity. The term, hybridity was initially used to refer to the crossbreed between different plants in Horticulture, but now it describes the blend of different cultures. Therefore "the area of hybridity itself, the area within which cultural meanings and identities forever contain the traces of different meanings and identities” [10,11,12]. Agha Shahid Ali’s background point towards resembling connotations and subjects which he uses in his poetry; they are a mixture of culturally diverse and globally geopolitical. Thus, it is first very important to understand what constitutes a ghazal and that poems have a right to be known as ghazals in the English language? Owing to the lack of research, the author is motivated to conduct a detailed study of the contemporary works being written in English today that fit into the broader context of ghazal writing. By outlining the historical background and its past development over the millennia of the ghazal genre and a half that it's been living, this review manuscript pursues to place recent efforts into perspective. It is expected that an improved understanding of the diverse and dynamic nature of ghazal writing within the past can facilitate us to examine however the kind of modern works being written in English nowadays work into the broader context of ghazal writing.

ORIGIN AND ITS HISTORICAL REVIEW AT A GLANCE:

The most important contribution of Arab civilisation was its language, the very best action, in line with the Arabs, besides the Kuran, was poetry. It's this poetry the conception of that Al-Sayuti, quoting Ahmad Ibn Faris has summarised [8]:

"Poetry is the archive of the Arabs; in it

their genealogies have been preserved;

through it, we can learn the glorious deeds

of the past; with it, we learn the Arabic language.

It sheds clarity on the darkest

and strangest things found in the Book of

God and in the tradition of God's apostle

and that of His companions and successors".

It is real that from the very starting of Arabic Poetry, significant poetic accomplishments were created by Arabs, and this has been thought of as specific characteristic and one thing that distinguishes them from the others. Numerous branches of Arabic literature originated and developed from poetry. Poetry was a method of communication of concepts. Ghazal was an important genre within the realm of poetry; Ghazal means that to speak a couple of ladies, her love and things associated with her.

In a real sense, the study of the development of Ghazal can be divided into three phases (1) Pre-Islamic (2) Early Islamic, and, (3) Umayyad. Arabic poetry is the only significant branch of Arabic literature whose roots go back beyond the rise of Islam. In the pre-Islamic period, Ghazal had not acquired an independent status. It was in the shape of Nasib or erotic prelude. They used it as a medium for their poetic expression. It was so touching and colourful that the audiences were always tempted to know what happened next. The narration of these events used to be the favourite pastime of the poets as they cherished to recount the story of the past days and lost hopes. Therefore they never talked about the love affairs of the present days as was the case with the Umayyad poets. It is perhaps mostly because of this reason that Ghazal could not develop in the pre-Islamic period as it did in the Umayyad period. In the early Islamic period, love poetry had the same significance as in the pre-Islamic period but with specific modification. As Islam emerged, it began to put some restrictions on poetry. To compose, Nasib was prohibited as the women were treated with respect by the Islamic society. The reference to the fair sex is found in two types of poetry - in praise of Muslim ladies as 'A'ishah, wife of the Prophet, (peace be upon him) or in the satire composed on infidels. The Umayyad period was in many respect the period of incubation for the arts, especially for literature. If any branch of literature developed fully during this period, it was the love poems which played a very prominent part in social and cultural developments and was sung for its own sake. The pagan love, as depicted by the pre-Islamic poets, was practical, expeditious and connected with the pleasure of the youth. The pagan poet has expressed his own personal feelings.

In the most basic context, ghazal could be considered as a first-person narrative of an ardent sweetheart, who is remorseful because of not being able to pursue his sawin. And this construct of the sweetheart is predominantly observed to be masculine. In some verses, “the beloved of these poets, is clearly feminine (as for example when women’s clothing, veiling, etc. is mentioned); she is then either described as a courtesan or an inaccessible lady in purdah.” There are other verses, which portray the beloved to be male youth, by highlighting some of the male characteristics (such as the development of the amorous teenage boy’s stubble is implied as emerging, which damages his hermaphrodite charisma). But it is interesting to note that in a large number of verses, the gender of the beloved is anonymous. Great emphasis is laid on the emotions which the lover experiences and fewer illustrations of the beloved are denoted in these texts, which makes it difficult to obtain a clear understanding of their gender. In Persian, this is also a result of grammar as the verb endings don’t really change according to gender. While, in Urdu, a beloved’s construct is considered to be masculine, by convention. The speculative femininity of the beloved is very prominent, but Owen Cornwall has highlighted time and again, that the most famous popular archetypal ghazal beloveds, Laila and Shirin, are female.

In the earlier period Indian English poetry wasn't fine received by the native readers. However, not to let the movement down, poets like Dom Moraes (1938-2004) began to write down within the late 50s. Similarly, poets like P Lai and Adil Jussawala conjointly began to write down within the early 60s. Most significant step within the development of Indian English poetry in English occurred in the middle 50s as several poets, editors and litterateurs committed themselves to the upliftment of Indian English Poetry. Nissim Ezekiel joined PEN in 1955 and therefore the Quest within the same year. The quest was quite a success as high most poets of the time like Kamala Das, A K Ramanujan, Dom Mores, Kotalkar, contributed to the journal. Another significant step towards the development of Indian English poetry was P Lai's founding of the Writers Workshop in 1958. Writers Workshop has become vital in promoting English Literature in India, publishing for more than 50 years now, it has published more than 3000 books. Ezekiel who had gained popularity came in the 60s also published his book The Exact Name with the Writers Workshop (a non-profit publishing house, was founded in 1958). Agha Shahid Ali published two of his early books Bone Sculptors and In Memory of Begum Akhtar with the writer's Workshop. Like Agha Shahid Ali, many poets who later became famous first began with the Writers Workshop: “Some important names are Kamala Das, K N Daruwalla, Arun Kolatkar, Arvind Krishna Mehrotra, Jayanta Mahapatra, Gieve Patel, Meena Alexander, Shiv K. Kumar etc”. Another milestone in the evolution of the poetry in India was the recognition of the English language by Sahitya Academy which began giving prizes for Indian writing in English. The poets included Nissim Ezekiel, K.N. Daruwalla, Shiv K Kumar, R. Parathasarathy, A.K. Ramunajan, Kamala Das, A K Mehrotra, Gieve Patel. Arun Kolatkar, Patel, and Jayanta Mahapatra. Agha Shahid Ali at that time was only a budding poet and could not find the place in the anthology. It was only with the publication of A K Mehrotra's Twelve Modern Indian English Poets that Agha Shahid Ali entered the canon of Indian English poetry in 1992. Modem Indian poetry in English still did not receive as much critical attention as poetry from other erstwhile colonies acquired. There are many reasons for this; one, that it came to be written after independence (1947), and it did not, like poetry from other nations, dedicate itself for the process of "writing back"; rather it focused mainly on day to day issues like relationships, poverty, sexuality, urban life etc. Second important reason is that Indian English poetry has been overshadowed by the quantity and quality of fiction written by Indian writers which include at least four Booker award winners. Thus Ali's poetry is seen more from the nationalistic point of view where he does not qualify to be in the canon; therefore, marginalized. Moreover, in ‘The Country Without a Post Office’ [13], Ali has remorsefully sketched the gross human rights violations by the Indian state in Kashmir.

“Kashmir shrinks into my mailbox;

my home a neat four by six inches.

I always loved neatness. Now I hold

the half-inch Himalayas in my hand.

This is home. And this the closest

I'll ever be to home. When I return,

the colours won't be so brilliant,

the Jhelum's waters so clean,

so ultramarine. My love

so overexposed.”

Some objects are far more than material significance to people. Similarly, Kashmir is diminishing in the postbox for Ali is considered by the writer as attenuation of Kashmir into being less than an artifice or image of mind which was so beautiful in its creation and imagination that it enabled the writer to be ever at home. This book has been received quite well in Kashmir and at the international level too; however, in India, the book has not received much critical attention with exceptions like Amitav Ghosh. Irrespective of all this, given the themes, patterns and forms Agha Shahid Ali has used, he will continue to find readers both at the national and international level. His ideas and concerns may be regional and culture-specific, but his poetry is not.

WHAT'S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A GHAZAL, A NAZAM, AND SHAYARI?

In Urdu, as compared to English, various terms have very unambiguous technical definitions while describing different forms of poetry.

· Ghazal:

It is a type of poem which is made of couplets (bi-linear verses) only. Both lines of first couplet rhyme with each other. In the rest of the couplets, only second line rhymes with the first couplet. In Ghazal, the first couplet is known as Matla’s, the last couplet is then Maqta’s. But it is a dominant trend to write the poet’s pen name or Takhallus in the last couplet of a Ghazal, and if it is written, then it can not be called Maqta’s. It can be a name that a poet gives himself — for example, Ghalib whose real name was Mirza Asadullah Khan — or real name used as Takhallus — for example, Allama Iqbal’s pen-name Iqbal as his real name was Muhammad Iqbal. Ideally, every Ghazal must have an odd number of couplets, but many poets do not follow this rule. Every couplet of a Ghazal deals with or discusses a topic of its own, as a result of which, each couplet can be a poem on its individual accord. They are independent in their discourse and do not need the help of others to specify their meaning. Consequently, a Ghazal never has a title. Most Ghazals are referred to by their first line. This is why many ghazals can have as many topics and subjects as the number of couplets it contains. Debates can be conducted about the interpretation of several subjects in a single couplet.

· Nazam:

If an Urdu poem looks like a Ghazal structurally, but, has a title and seems to be dealing only with one issue only, then it’s a Nazam, not Ghazal. By the way, most songs are technically Nazams with slightly complex rhyme pattern. Majority of poems in Urdu that are written in the form of rhymed verse is also in modern style. It denotes it just like a poem. There are many different types and forms of Nazams in Urdu. Ideally, all kinds of Nazams employ some sort of limited or extensive - and often diverse - rhyming systems. The simplest and most common form of Nazam is made of couplets. Every line in a couplet is written in a way so that it rhymes only with a similar line in the same couplet. Till now, it is the simplest form of Nazam for a poet to write. A Nazam is almost always on a single topic and it always has a title. A Nazam with excessive but arbitrary symbolism and no rhymes can be described Azad Nazam.

· Shayari:

It is the Urdu word for poetry. It encompasses all forms and kinds of poetry in the Urdu language.

DEMYSTIFYING STRUCTURE AND THE CRAFT OF A GHAZAL:

A ghazal has an average of five to fifteen couplets in its composition, which are structurally, thematically, and emotionally autonomous. Though meter is not imposed, the length of the lines is taken into serious consideration which should be equal. “The first couplet introduces a scheme and is built of rhyme and is followed by a refrain. Subsequent couplets pick up the same scheme but in the second line, resulting in the repetition of the refrain while rhyming the second line with both lines of the first stanza. The final couplet usually includes the poet's signature, referring to the author in the first or third person, and frequently including the poet's own name or a derivation of its meaning.”

Below is a Ghazal structure :

A x

pen name ........A x

in which A is Rhyme and x is Repetition.

“In general, Ghazal consists of five main components - matla (first couplet), makta (concluding couplet), bahar (metre), qafiya (monorhyme) and radif (refrain) and a collection of couplets (sher) which follow the rules of these above-mentioned components is called as a true ghazal. These components unite together to form a precise structure of ghazal. Matla, makta, bahar, qafiya and radif so eloquently unite in a ghazal that nobody can even imagine separating one component from another. The couplets are constructed as pearls on a necklace when united, they form a necklace and when dispersed they show their separate identity.” Javed Akhtar metaphorically describes a ghazal as a box of assorted biscuits. He describes it in such a way because, just like having different flavours of biscuits in a single biscuit box, which emphasises its unique structure. Two lines make a couplet (Sher). More than Four couplets together make a Ghazal. And every couplet is exclusive, independent of other couplets and is complete in itself.

When Iranian, Indian and Pakistani musicians sung these ghazals traditionally, they sought to invoke elements of longing, sadness, adoration, suffering, and philosophical questions. This form had its origins from seventh-century Arabia, but Persian poets such as Rumi and Hafiz were major contributors to the development of its popularity in parts of thirteenth and fourteenth century. With the onset of the eighteenth-century, the poets used a mixture of languages of Northern India along with Urdu. Ghazal was also introduced in languages such as Hebrew, Turkish, Hindi and Pashto. Federico Garcia Lorca from Spain experimented with the form, as did the German poet and philosopher Goethe. “Indian musicians such as Ravi Shankar and Begum Akhtar popularized the ghazal in the English-speaking world during the 1960s. However, it was the poet Agha Shahid Ali who introduced it, in its classical form, to Americans.” Ali compared each ghazal couplet to "a stone from a necklace," which should continue to "shine in that vivid isolation." Ali's ghazal "Even the Rain" is excerpted here [15]:

“ “What will suffice for a true-love knot? Even the rain?

But he has bought grief's lottery, bought even the rain.

"Our glosses / wanting in this world"-"Can you remember?"

Anyone!-"when we thought / the poets taught" even the rain?

After we died-That was it!-God left us in the dark.

And as we forgot the dark, we forgot even the rain.

Drought was over. Where was I? Drinks were on the house.

For mixers, my love, you'd poured—what?—even the rain.” ”

Ali’s anthology Ravishing DisUnities: Real Ghazals, was a major contribution which served to mark a spot for ghazal in American literature [14] which he did in 2000, including a large number os ghazals extending up to 100, few of which stuck to their original structure. “American poets, including John Hollander, Maxine Kumin, Heather McHugh, and W. S. Merwin, wrote the majority of the poems.” One example of such form is McHugh's "Ghazal of the Better - Unbegun” which not only maintains the length of couplets, number of lines successfully but also observes other minute details such as the rhyme-refrain scheme which is explicated in the initial couplet. Below are the first three couplets[16]:

“Too volatile, am I? too voluble? too much a word-person?

I blame the soup: I'm a primordially stirred person.

Two pronouns and a vehicle was Icarus with wings.

The apparatus of his selves made an absurd person.

The sound I make is sympathy's: sad dogs are tied afar.

But howling I become an ever more unheard person.”

Many attempts into the translation of ghazals from their original language to English have been attempted by various scholars and poets. This procedure is disconcerting and exhausting, as while performing this task, special focus is to be given to various elements like painting the literal meaning of each poem while respecting important details like the refrain, rhyme, and line length. “Aijaz Ahmad's Ghazals of Ghalib; Versions from the Urdu, provides a fascinating look at how various poets, including Adrienne Rich, William Stafford, William Hunt, David Ray, and W.S. Merwin, worked with a literal translation of Ghalib's Urdu ghazals to render their own versions in English. Elizabeth T. Gray's The Green Sea of Heaven, which offers fifty ghazals by Hafiz, provides a reliable literal translation of the Persian master, at the expense of form."

EXPLORING THE MYTHS ABOUT GHAZAL:

Few Myths and Facts about Ghazal ca be put forward as

· Myth 1 – Ghazal is a form of music:

The fact is that Ghazal is a form of poetry and not music. Originally, it was recited as a form of poetry. All over the world, it is still widely recited only as poetry, by the poets in various mushairas (poetic symposiums). It later fused with music into a popular form of light melancholic singing, which was made popular by “artists such as Begum Akhtar, Mehdi Hassan, Jagjit Singh, Farida Khanum and Ustad Ghulam Ali.” These singers have also incorporated nazm, dohe, thumri and other forms of poetry in a similar genre of music. But it is a myth that is the genre of music is called ‘Ghazal’.

· Myth 2 – Ghazal is a form of Sufi music:

It is true that a ghazal can be Sufi, but not all Sufi songs can be categorised as ghazals. The songs which have the word ‘maula’ cannot be termed as Sufi. Sufi is more of an ideology and more often expressed in a musical ‘Qawwaali’ than a ghazal.

“Hazaaron khwahishen aisi ke har khwaahish pe dum nikle

Bahot nikle mere armaan lekin phir bhi kam nikle” –

Mirza Ghalib

(“Thousands of desires are such that each is worth losing breath.

Many of them I have realized, yet I yearn for more”)

· Myth 3 – Ghazals are written only in Urdu:

Ghazals were originally written in Arabic, and then later developed into other languages like Persian, Hebrew and Urdu. Today, ghazals can be found in a number of languages such as Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, Punjabi, English, German etc. Dr Ghazal Srinivas is known as a pioneer of Telugu ghazals. Though it can be formulated in any language today, its most famous discourse is in Urdu.

· Myth 4– The thought of Ghazal is restricted to longing and unattainable Love:

Earlier, ghazals were only concentrated around love, but since then, they have evolved remarkably and now deals with other tragedies in life as well, which was possible only due to the inherent social awareness of the poets. It has tackled various subjects from philosophy to a rebellious and satirical take on the social issues, some ghazals have outlined the liberal thought, taking an insult at fundamentalism and sometimes to outright irreverence to religion. Frequently used words have their symbolic meaning. Maiqana (Bar), the maiqwaar (drinker), haram (place of worship), waiz (preacher) and many such are often used metaphorically. As Ghalib says in one of his ghazals –

“Hum ko maaloom hai jannat ki haqeeqat, lekin

Dil ko khush rakhne ko Ghalib yeh khayaal achcha hai”

(“I know the truth about paradise, but if this fable provides comfort Ghalib, the thought’s not bad”)

DISCUSSION AND REMARKS:

For writing the present review after going through the literary scenario, it was concluded that most of the English ghazals were composed during the recent period and practised in many countries likes Italy, France, Germany, Spain, Indian and England etc. It is also discovered that most of the couplets that are attributed to different poets by different scholars were converted from Urdu to English with slight changes. After sifting the evidence, it can be concluded that it was so because the art of writing in English ghazal is not so developed during the Umayyad period and till date. Several English poets tried their hand in composing by converting/translating in this comparatively difficult poetic genre, and few Ghazals were set to music for gaining commercial popularity. Few composed English ghazals that preserve the formal qualities and mood of the traditional genre remarkably well. The literary output, especially in the domain of poetry, has been preserved mainly in anthologies or human retention. Further extensive research is needed to trace out the original composers of these poems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

I’m greatly indebted to Dr. Meghna Mudaliar for bringing the concept of English ghazal to my attention and for concrete suggestions on improving upon the presentation of the work.

REFERENCES :

1. K.C. Kanda, Masterpieces of Urdu Ghazal - From 17th to 20th Century, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, India.

2. E.G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia: Four Volume Set, Ibex Publisher, Iran, 1997.

3. L. Sewell, Feminist Poetries. In J. Ashton (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to American Poetry since 1945, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 109–126, 2013.

4. S.R. Faruqi and F.W. Pritchett, Lyric Poetry in Urdu: the Ghazal, Delos 3, pp. 7-12, 1991.

5. I.H. Rizvi, Unfading blooms: a collection of poems, Prakash Book Depot - Bareilly, India, 1980.

6. S. Sharma, In Conversation with Steffen Horstmann - Writers in Conversation Vol. 4, No. 1, 2017. http://fhrc.flinders.edu.au/writers_in_conversation/

7. E.T. Gray, The green sea of heaven: Fifty ghazals from the diwan of Hafiz “Introduction”, White Cloud Press, 1995.

8. A.I. Qutayba, Uyun al-akhbar, Cairo, vol. 2, 185, 1964.

9. S. Rushdie, Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism 1981-1991, Granta Books, London, 1991.

10. S.K. Kumar, The Best of Faiz, New Delhi: UBSPD, 2001.

11. J. Kuortti and J. Nyman, Reconstructing Hybridity: Post-Colonial Studies in Transition. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2007.

12. H.R. Kurz and G.G. Dore, Projections of Paradise: Ideal Elsewheres in Postcolonial Migrant Literature, Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2011.

13. A.S. Ali, The Country without a Post Office, Poems, New York, 1997

14. A.S. Ali, ed. 2000. Introduction to Ravishing DisUnities: Real Ghazals in English, Hanover, NH and London, University Press of New England, 2000.

15. A.S. Ali, Call Me Ishmael Tonight: A Book of Ghazals, New York: W.W. Norton, 2003.

16. H. McHugh, Ghazal of the Better-Unbegun, Poets of the New Century edited by Roger Weingarten, Richard Higgerson, David R. Godine Publisher, Boston, 2001.

Received on 09.07.2019 Modified on 08.09.2019

Res. J. Humanities and Social Sciences. 2019; 10(4):.1071-1077.

DOI: 10.5958/2321-5828.2019.00176.1