Causes of Child Labour in Different Sectors: A Case study of Urban Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh

 

S. Marulu Reddy, E. Abbulu

 

 

 

1. INTRODUCTION:

According to UNICEF’s definition, ¹ a child worker is 1) any child aged 5-11 years who, in the seven days preceding the survey, worked for someone who is not a member of the household, with or without pay, or did household chores for 28 or more hours, or engaged in any family business, and 2) any child aged 12-14 years who, in the seven days preceding the survey, worked for 14 or more hours, or did household chores for 28 or more hours, or engaged in any other family work for 14 or more hours. The ILO defined,² child labour as the type of work performed by children below 14 years of age, that deprives them of their childhood and their dignity, which hampers their access to education and acquisition of skills, and which is performed under conditions harmful to their health and development.

 

The children of a nation are its most valuable asset and the nation's future is very much dependent on their proper development. Therefore an investment in children is indeed an investment in a nation's future.

 

A healthy and educated child of the present is an active and intelligent citizen of the future.³ It is for this reason that the socio-economic development of a nation is best judged and justified only when its children enjoys constitutional rights equally and develop their full potential to grow into responsible adults of tomorrow. If they are neglected today, tomorrow would be full of miseries. It was rightly stated that children are the world's vulnerable resources and without them there would be no tomorrow⁴.

 

The anguish and anxiety expressed in the above statements were reflected in the Indian Child Labour Act of 1960 which stated in its preamble that children are the most vulnerable group in any population. Because of their vulnerability and dependence, they can be exploited, ill treated and directed into undesirable channels by anti-social elements in the community. It is with children that social justice must begin. Unless a tender plant is properly protected and nourished, it cannot grow into a strong and useful tree. Therefore, the first priority in the scale of social justice should be given to the welfare of children. ⁵ The growth of the child into a mature and happy person with a fully developed personality depends upon the support and attention he/she receives from the society.  The growth of the child into a mature and happy person with a fully developed personality depends upon the support and attention he/she receives from the society⁶.

 

Poverty is the root cause of child labour. Another important reason is illiteracy. Child Labour is the breed of poverty and illiteracy. Poverty forces the parents to send their children to work. Diseases and other contingencies may need extra money and the employment of children may be the easily accessible method to bring in that money⁷. Primary Causes - 1) Inadequate income of the family, 2) Absence of scheme for family allowance as in other countries, 3) Large sized families, 4) Child-labour is a cheap commodity, 5) Absence of strict implementation of compulsory education and 6) Ignorance of the parents. ⁸ 

 

In all developing countries, it is a probably a universal experience that as soon as children reach the age of 8 or 9, they begin to help in a wide variety of work in both rural and urban areas. It is generally accepted that poverty is the main reason for putting children to work. Their income is essential for subsistence of the family and themselves. The effect of poverty is most severe and adverse on growing children. It may also be surmised that with the increasing mechanization of agriculture, a large number of farmlands will be squeezed out this sector, at least in the initial stages and forced to migrate to cities thus augmenting the strength of child labour in urban centers. The urban explosion of today’s Third World is nothing less than the evolution of a society during its structural transformation from agrarian to industrial and service economy⁹.

 

Child  labour is  a  colossal  problem  in  India  and  is  deep  rooted  with  poverty. Over 400 million people live below the poverty line and 90 per cent of their active population working in the informal sector.  According  to  the  1991  census,  there  are  11.2  million  working children out of a total 210 million children aged 5-14 years. Among them, 9.8 million are classified as ‘main’ workers and 2.2 million as ‘marginal’ workers. ¹⁰  According to Uppal and Kaur (2008),¹¹ researchers give a range of incidence of child labour in India from about 14 million to about 100 million. Every fourth child in the age group of 5-15 is employed. The figures released by the non-governmental agencies are much higher than those of the State.  It is estimated that over 20 per cent of the country’s GNP is contributed by child labour.

 

According to Census of India - 2001, there were 12.26 million working children in the  age  group  of  5-14  years  as  compared  to  11.3  million  in  1991  revealing  an increasing  trend  in  absolute  numbers  though  the  work  participation  rates  of children (5-14) has come down from 5.4 percent during 1991 to 5 percent during 2001. The recent round of the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) estimates suggest that  the  child  labour  in  the  country  is  around  8.9  million  in  2004-05  with  a workforce participation rate of 3.4 per cent (NSSO 2004-05).  Census  data  shows  that  there  is  a  decline  in  the  absolute  number  as  well  as in the percentage  of  main  workers  of  children  (age group 5-14)  to  total  population  in  that  age group, from 4.3 percent in 1991 to 2.3 percent in 2001. But there was a substantial increase in marginal workers in every category of work force irrespective of sex and residence. As a result, despite the number of main workers declining from 9.08 million in 1991 to 5.78 million in 2001, the total number of children in the work force increased.  A large part of the increase was accounted for by the increase in marginal  workers,  which  increased  from  2.2  million  in  1991  to  6.89  million  in 2001.  Main and Marginal workers put together, the work participation rate (WPR)  of  children  in  the  5-14  age  group  has  declined  from  5.4  percent  during 1991 to 5 percent in 2001.   The declining trends between 1991 and 2001 of main child workers along with increasing marginal workers may indicate the changing nature of work done by children.   There  is  a  general  trend  of  marginalization  of  labour  force  in  the country and this is also reflected in the Census figures.

2. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY:

In view of the above discussion, it is a multi-tiered issue, existing at different levels, in rural and urban areas, inside and outside houses, during different stages in the child's life in different sets of circumstances and environments. The need of the hour is therefore to make child visible and ensure his/her access to education and healthy socialisation. Any attempt to evolve such measures needs several detailed empirical studies on the problem, for it has different dimensions which differ from one society to another, one region to another and from one time to another. The present study is an empirical survey in that direction. It made an attempt to analyse the extent of child labour participation in different sectors and also to investigate the possible causes of this issue that why children who are at their education attainment age, instead of going to school, are compelled to do work. Similar studies of this nature have been conducted in other developing countries but a little work has been done on this issue in Andhra Pradesh in its real context. This research addresses the following research questions.

1.      What are the demographic characteristics of respondents?

2.      Which form of child labour is more common in the study area?

3.      What are the main causes of child labour?

 

3. METHODOLOGY:

Data used in this research was obtained from the children aged 5-15 in city Visakhapatnam of Andhra Pradesh who were working at Construction, Departmental Stores, Hotels and Mechanical workshops. Interview Schedule was designed to measure the demographic characteristics in different sectors of the child labour. A convenience sample is obtained by selecting ‘convenient’ population units.  The method of convenience sampling is also called the chunk.  A chunk refers to that fraction of the population being investigated which is selected neither by probability nor by judgment but by convenience.  Convenience samples are prone to bias by their very nature – selecting population elements which are convenient to choose almost always make them special or different from the rest of the elements the population in some way¹².  240 child labourers were selected for the present study and in equal ratio from each category. In the current study, the data were analyzed using “SPSS” program. A number of hypotheses constructed in the light of previously conducted researches, were tested on the basis of empirical evidences taken from data. Chi-square test was employed to apply to match up observed data with data that would be estimated according to a given hypothesis.

In order to judge the significance associated between attributes, the calculated value of chi square was compared with corresponding table at 5 per cent level of significance. The results are considered significant if the calculated value of chi square is greater than the tabulated value otherwise regarded as non-significant value¹³.

 

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

4.1 Age

The child workers status as child be decided by the age itself, even then in that particular age also the workers are of lower aged children are working. The data collected regarding the pattern of children age is presented in Table-1. The mean age of the children out of the total sample of 240 is 12.39. A majority of the working children (62.92%) are in the age group of 13-14 years as they can handle some hard work such as handling the instruments and taking up some manual work.  In the age group of 13-14, there are 37 children who are working in construction, 40 children in department stores, 39 in hotels and tea stalls and 35 in mechanical workshops, whose percentages are 61.67, 66.66, 65.0 and 58.33 respectively. The total number of child labourers is 151. Nearly one-third of children i.e. 89 of the total 240 (37.08%) belongs to the group of 5-12 years, which shows the growing trend of the participation of the child labourers in economic activities. Further, it shows that the age of the child labourers in the construction category is comparatively higher than the child labourers of other categories.

 

4.2 Gender

Gender plays an imperative role in the work performance of the child worker. Male child workers can do some activities whereas girl child workers can carry out some activities efficiently. With regard to the sex composition of the sample, Table-2 shows that the total sample consists of 194 males and 46 females whose percentages are 80.83 and 19.17 respectively. As regards the department-wise segmentation, 36 are males and 24 are females and whose percentages are 60.00 and 40.00 respectively. In departmental stores 38 males whose percentage is 63.33 and 22 children are females whose percentage is 36.67.  In hotels and mechanical workshops, it is found that the whole sample enquiry is males only.  No female children are encountered. In construction work and departmental stores almost half of the respondents are female (46) which is 19.17%. It shows that the services of female children are preferred in construction work and departmental stores rather than in hotels and tea stalls and mechanical workshops. Even though, the construction is a hard job, female children are accompanied with their parents for their help.

 

 

 

 

 

4.3 Level of Education

There are 18 children (30.00%) who have primary education as their qualification belongs to construction activity whose percentage is 30.00, there are no children in departmental stores where as 14 children belong to hotel industry whose percentage is 23.33 and 26 children fall in mechanical workshops whose percentage is 43.33. The total number is 58 whose overall percentage is 24.17.  It was found that there are 94 children who have got secondary education as their qualification which form part of 39.17 percent of the total sample.  Of these children, 20 are belongs to construction activity whose percentage is 33.33.  In the construction activity 20 are belongs to departmental stores aggregating to 33.33 percent, 35 children are in hotel industry whose percentage is 58.33 of the total hotel industry and it was found that 19 children are working in mechanical workshops who have got secondary education as their qualification and whose percentage is 31.67.  Finally, an important thing to consider is the education of child labour; there are 65 children who have got high school education as their qualification whose percentage is 27.08 of the total sample that is studied.  And it was found that there are 12 children in construction work, whose percentage is 20.00.  As regards departmental stores are concerned, there are 40 children who have got high school education as their qualification whose percentage is 66.67, there are 7 children who are working in hotels and their percentage is 11.67 and there are 6 children who have got high school education as their qualification leading to 10.00 percent of the total children working in mechanical workshops.

 

4.4 Religion

Table-4 explains the religion-wise distribution of child labourers. It was found that 161 are belongs to Hindu religion whose percentage is 67.08 of the total sample.  10 children are Muslims which is 4.17 percent and the remaining sample i.e. 69 are Christians whose percentage is 28.75.  It was uniquely found that the whole 10 children, belonging to Muslim community are working only in mechanical workshops which stand at 4.17 per cent.  As regards construction activity, 37 children belong to Hindus and 23 children belong to Christianity whose percentage is 61.67 and 38.33 respectively. In departmental stores, there are 44 Hindu children and 16 Christian children whose percentage is 73.33 and 26.67 respectively. In hotels and tea stalls 48 Hindu children and 12 Christian children are found whose percentage is 80.00 and 20.00. As regards mechanical workshops are concerned 32 Hindu children, 18 Christian children and 10 Muslim children are found and whose percentage is 53.33, 30.00 and 16.67 respectively.

 

 

4.5 Social Status

Table-5 shows that there are a total of 17 children which is 7.08 percent of the total in Open Castes.  There are 3 children are in construction work, whose percentage is 5.0, and 10 children are in departmental stores whose percentage is 16.67, and 4 children are in hotels whose percentage is 6.67 and there are no  children who belongs to Open Caste in mechanical workshops. When it comes to Backward Class, there are 31 children in construction activity; whose percentage is 51.67, in departmental stores there are 40 children, aggregating to 66.67 percent and 48 children in hotels which are 80.0 percent and 50 children in mechanical workshops whose percent is 83.33. There are total 169 children belonging to Backward Caste community which is 70.42 percent of the total. When it comes to Schedule Caste there are 20 children in construction, 10 children in department stores, 4 children in hotels and 10 children in mechanical workshops whose percentages are 33.13%, 16.67%, 6.67% and 16.67% respectively. The total children are 44 and the percentage is 18.33. There are 10 children who belong to Scheduled Tribes, leading to 4.17 percent of which 6 children are in construction activity and 4 are in hotel industry whose percentage is 10.0 and 6.67 respectively.  All these children who belong to Scheduled Tribes migrated from nearby rural areas. 

 

4.6 Migration

Table-6 shows that majority of the parents of the child labourers (66.67%) were migrants from outside the district. 80 children (33.33%) belong to Visakhapatnam. It was found that around one third of the parents of the child labourers migrated less than 10 years ago. All the children who belong to Scheduled Tribe Castes migrated from nearby rural areas.

 

5. TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS:

The chi-square test is employed to analyse above variables under individual factors (personal background of child labour) to observe whether the relationship is significant or not. Relationship of variables and statistical analysis was done through Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).  The findings are:

 

Hypotheses

H₀: There is no relationship between individual factors and child labour activity (with respect to working field of child)

H₁: There is a relationship between individual factors and child labour activity (with respect to working field of child)

 

Individual Factors (personal background)	Chi–square Value	df	p value
Age Group	2.418	6	0.878
Gender	57.112*	3	0.000
Education	90.829*	9	0.000
Religion	37.433*	6	0.000
Social Status	40.531*	9	0.000
Nature of Migration	32.550*	3	0.000
Note:  *significant at 1 per cent level.

 

Age Group:

Age composition has a significant implication on the economic development of the nation. The calculated chi-square value is 2.418 and it is statistically not significant. Hence, the null hypotheses is accepted and concluded that there is no relationship between age group and child labour activity.

 

Gender:

According to the chi-square result gender have association with child labour activity. The result of chi-square (57.112) is significant at 1 per cent level. The null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted that there is a relationship between gender and child labour activity.

 

Education:

The educational status of children has a significant influence on the socio-economic life of the parents as well as the children. The low level of literacy of adult members of the working children is an important cause for their being placed in the informal sector activities. The study tested the relationship with child labour problem and the result of chi-square (90.829) value is significant at 1 per cent level. Hence, the alternative hypothesis is accepted and concluded that there is a relation between education and child labour problem.

 

Religion:

Working children are found from all religions. In the present study it is found that the working children were Hindus, Muslims and Christians and tested the relation between religion and child works. The calculated chi-square value is 37.433 which is statistically significant at 1 percent level and accepted the alternative hypothesis that there is an association between religion and child workers.   

 

Social Status:

Lower caste groups have shown strong correlation with economic backwardness. These groups are forced to send their children as labourers. The computed chi-square value is (40.531) significant at 1 per cent level and concluded that there is a relation between caste system and child labour problem.

 

Nature of Migration:

Along with the concept of child labour, the concept of migrant child labour is also associated. Working children sometimes migrate alone or sometimes they migrate with their parents. The fact whether a child laour is a migrant or a native inhabitant is of great concern, because the problems faced by the migrant child labourers are peculiar. The study made an attempt to found that relation. The calculated chi-square value is 32.550 and it is statistically significant at 1 percent level. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted that whether the child labour is a migrant or a native inhabitant is of a great concern.  

 

6. CONCLUSION:

The magnitude of child labour is more in backward caste families and caste is significant in the study area as their financial position is very poor and the children are asked to go for work. Increase in the income levels of poor parents by providing better paid alternative occupations to adult members of the family so that they can afford to live without depending on the earnings of their children. Illiteracy made them to work in low wage earning activities. The study found that the dropout rate at secondary level of education is considerably high. Most of the child labourers are school dropouts at the elementary level. Illiteracy of the children is also another major reason for children to work in hazardous situation and level of education is having a relation to enter in to job. Provide the quality education (with all recreation facilities) at convenient places so that no child is deprived of basic education due to non-availability of schools at suitable timings. That is, raising the levels of household income, they should ensure that children, who are unfortunately driven to work, must be able to pursue their studies, so that they may be able to learn while they earn. Migration is another factor in urban area. Around one third of the parents of the child labourers migrated less than 10 years ago from rural.  These migrated families are also forced their children to work along with them. Such movement coupled with worsening economic trends, force children and their families into urban poverty, children are soon required to work. To stop rural to urban migration reduce rural poverty through strict implementation of rural employment programmes.

 

7. REFERENCES:

1.       United Nations Children’s Fund, “The State of the World’s Children”, Oxford University Press, United Kingdom, 2006.

2.       International Labour Organization, “The End of the Child Labour within Reach”, Report of the Director General, Report 1(B), Geneva.

3.       R.N. Tagore (Nobel Laureate), quoted from R. Kumar (1988), Child Development in India – Health, Welfare and Management, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi, 1998, p. 21.

4.       George Eliot, quoted from Pramila Pandit Barooah (1998), Children in Quotes Publications Divisions, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, p.103.

5.       Subba Rao, "Social Justice and Law", p.110, quoted from Mehra and Jaswal (1996), Child Labour and the Law, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, p. l.

6.       Sudesh Kumar Sharma, "Child and Constitution: An Appraisal in Distributive Justice Perspective", Supreme Court Journal, May 1989, Vol. 2, Part-I, pp: 9-10.

7.       Kulshrestha J.C, “Child Labour in India”, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi, 1978, p. 12.

8.       Kulshreshta J.C, op. cit., pp: 14-17.

9.       Rodgers, A and Williamson, J (1982): Migration and Urbanization and Third World Development an Overview”, Economic Development and Cultural Change, No. 30, pp: 468.

10.     Uppal R.K and Rimpi Kaur, “Child Labour in India: Current Status of Government Policies and Strategies to Control Over” in Child Labour - Issues, Causes and Interventions (Ed.)

11.     Babita Agarwal, Mahamaya  Publishing House, New Delhi, 2008, p. 80-81.

12.     Gupta, S.P. (1997): Statistical Methods, Sultan Chand & Sons Publications, New Delhi.

13.     Gupta, S.P. (1997): op. cit.